tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-162664752009-02-20T17:03:33.279-08:00Encyclopedia of General CultureMurat Alperennoreply@blogger.comBlogger249125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-16266475.post-1139864700393450852006-02-13T12:56:00.001-08:002006-02-13T13:05:00.410-08:00A500A500[EXTRACT]<H3 id=siteSub>From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</H3>
<DIV id=contentSub>(Redirected from <A title="Amiga 500" href="/w/index.php?title=Amiga_500&redirect=no">Amiga 500</A>)</DIV>
<DIV id=jump-to-nav>Jump to: <A href="#column-one">navigation</A>, <A href="#searchInput">search</A></DIV><!-- start content -->
<DL>
<DD><I>For the A-road in England, see <A title="A500 road" href="/wiki/A500_road">A500 road</A>.</I> </DD></DL>
<P>The <B>A500</B>, also known as the <B>Amiga 500</B>, was the first "low-end" <A title="Commodore International" href="/wiki/Commodore_International">Commodore</A> <A title=Amiga href="/wiki/Amiga">Amiga</A> <A title=16-bit href="/wiki/16-bit">16-bit</A> <A title=Multimedia href="/wiki/Multimedia">multimedia</A> home/<A title="Personal computer" href="/wiki/Personal_computer">personal computer</A> model. It was released in <A title=1987 href="/wiki/1987">1987</A>, at the same time as the high-end <A title=A2000 href="/wiki/A2000">A2000</A>, and competed directly against the <A title="Atari ST" href="/wiki/Atari_ST">Atari 520ST</A>.</P>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 352px"><A class=internal title="An Amiga 500 computer system, with 1084S RGB monitor and A1010 floppy disk drive." href="/wiki/Image:Amiga500_system.jpg"><IMG height=262 alt="An Amiga 500 computer system, with 1084S RGB monitor and A1010 floppy disk drive." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Amiga500_system.jpg/350px-Amiga500_system.jpg" width=350 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Amiga500_system.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Amiga500_system.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>An Amiga 500 computer system, with 1084S RGB monitor and A1010 floppy disk drive.</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<P>Technical specifications:</P>
<UL>
<LI><A title="Motorola 68000" href="/wiki/Motorola_68000">Motorola 68000</A> (32-bit <A title=CISC href="/wiki/CISC">CISC</A> microprocessor with 16 registers lacking <A title="Memory management unit" href="/wiki/Memory_management_unit">MMU</A> for memory protection and virtual memory) running at 7.16 MHz (NTSC version), 7.09 MHz (PAL version)
<LI>Default operating system <A title=AmigaOS href="/wiki/AmigaOS">AmigaOS</A> 1.2 or 1.3 (having 32-bit <A title="Pre-emptive multitasking" href="/wiki/Pre-emptive_multitasking">pre-emptive multitasking</A> <A title=Microkernel href="/wiki/Microkernel">microkernel</A>) depending on the revision
<LI>512 <A title=Kilobyte href="/wiki/Kilobyte">KB</A> of <A title="Chip RAM" href="/wiki/Chip_RAM">Chip RAM</A> by default (sound buffers, graphics buffers and software existed in the same memory space)
<UL>
<LI>upper limit of 16 <A title=Megabyte href="/wiki/Megabyte">MB</A> of memory due to MC68000 limitations (24-bit external <A title="Address bus" href="/wiki/Address_bus">address bus</A>) </LI></UL>
<LI><A title="Original Amiga chipset" href="/wiki/Original_Amiga_chipset">OCS</A>/<A title="Extended chip set" href="/wiki/Extended_chip_set">ECS</A> chipset
<LI>50 <A title=Hertz href="/wiki/Hertz">Hz</A> <A title=PAL href="/wiki/PAL">PAL</A> and 60 Hz <A title=NTSC href="/wiki/NTSC">NTSC</A> <A title=Television href="/wiki/Television">TV</A> output by default versions available; 50/60Hz mode switchable by software in later revisions
<LI>software-switchable low-pass audio filter (power <A title=LED href="/wiki/LED">LED</A> shows filter status, darker when off)
<LI><A title=IRQ href="/wiki/IRQ">IRQ</A> sharing (like the PCI bus)
<LI>IRQ system had 7 priority levels of <A title=Interrupt href="/wiki/Interrupt">interrupts</A>
<UL>
<LI>No limit on number of interrupts available
<LI>Resources handled by Autoconfig, very similar to <A title="Advanced Configuration and Power Interface" href="/wiki/Advanced_Configuration_and_Power_Interface">ACPI</A>, resources were not numbered or labelled, just given as amounts and addresses </LI></UL>
<LI>No specific <A title=Input/output href="/wiki/Input/output">I/O</A> ports, instead using memory mapped I/O space separately for each hardware device (thanks to <A title="Jay Miner" href="/wiki/Jay_Miner">Jay Miner</A>) </LI></UL>
<P>Amiga 500 was used a lot for gaming, and there were a variety of <A title=Atari href="/wiki/Atari">Atari</A>-style game controllers that could be used. One of the most popular ones was <A title=TAC-2 href="/wiki/TAC-2">TAC-2</A>, The Totally Accurate Controller mk2 by <A class=new title=Suncom href="/w/index.php?title=Suncom&action=edit">Suncom</A>.</P>
<P><BR style="CLEAR: both"></P>
<CENTER>
<TABLE class=toccolours style="MARGIN: 0px 2em">
<TBODY>
<TR>
<TD style="BACKGROUND: #ccccff" align=middle>
<DIV class=floatright><SPAN><A class=image title="" href="/wiki/Image:CBM_Logo.svg"><IMG height=20 alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/5c/CBM_Logo.svg/20px-CBM_Logo.svg.png" width=20 longDesc=/wiki/Image:CBM_Logo.svg></A></SPAN></DIV><B> <A title="Commodore International" href="/wiki/Commodore_International#Product_line">List of Commodore microcomputers</A></B></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD style="FONT-SIZE: 90%" align=middle>
<P><A title="MOS Technology 6502" href="/wiki/MOS_Technology_6502">MOS Technology 6502</A>-based (<A title=8-bit href="/wiki/8-bit">8-bit</A>): <A title=KIM-1 href="/wiki/KIM-1">MOS/CBM KIM-1</A> | <A title="Commodore PET" href="/wiki/Commodore_PET">PET/CBM</A> | <A title="Commodore CBM-II" href="/wiki/Commodore_CBM-II">CBM-II (aka B/P series)</A> | <A title="Commodore VIC-20" href="/wiki/Commodore_VIC-20">VIC-20/VC-20</A> | <A title="Commodore 64" href="/wiki/Commodore_64">C64</A> | <A title="Commodore SX-64" href="/wiki/Commodore_SX-64">SX-64</A> | <A title="Commodore 16" href="/wiki/Commodore_16">C16 & 116</A> | <A title="Commodore Plus/4" href="/wiki/Commodore_Plus/4">Plus/4</A> | <A title="Commodore 128" href="/wiki/Commodore_128">C128</A>
</P>
<P><A title="Motorola 68000" href="/wiki/Motorola_68000">M68K</A>-based (<A title=16-bit href="/wiki/16-bit">16</A>/<A title=32-bit href="/wiki/32-bit">32-bit</A>): <A title="Amiga 1000" href="/wiki/Amiga_1000">Amiga 1000</A> | <A title="Amiga 500" href="/wiki/Amiga_500">Amiga 500</A> | <A title="Amiga 2000" href="/wiki/Amiga_2000">Amiga 2000</A> | <A title="Amiga 500+" href="/wiki/Amiga_500%2B">Amiga 500+</A> | <A title="Amiga 2500" href="/wiki/Amiga_2500">Amiga 2500</A> | <A title="Amiga 3000" href="/wiki/Amiga_3000">Amiga 3000</A>, <A title="Amiga 3000UX" href="/wiki/Amiga_3000UX">UX</A>, <A title="Amiga 3000T" href="/wiki/Amiga_3000T">T</A> | <A title="Amiga 600" href="/wiki/Amiga_600">Amiga 600</A> | <A title="Amiga 1200" href="/wiki/Amiga_1200">Amiga 1200</A> | <A title="Amiga 4000" href="/wiki/Amiga_4000">Amiga 4000</A></P></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE></CENTER>
<HR>
<P>The <B>A500</B> designation was also used on an internal <A title="Acorn Archimedes" href="/wiki/Acorn_Archimedes">Acorn Archimedes</A> development machine <A class="external autonumber" title=http://www.drobe.co.uk/riscos/artifact476.html href="http://www.drobe.co.uk/riscos/artifact476.html">[1]</A>.</P>
<P>The <B>A500</B> often featured the words "<A title="The B-52s" href="/wiki/The_B-52s">The B-52s</A> Rock Lobster" written on the motherboard, in reference to the popular song of that time period.</P><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:3095-0!1!0!0!!en!2 and timestamp 20060213194741 -->
<DIV class=printfooter>Retrieved from "<A href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A500">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A500</A>"</DIV>
<DIV id=catlinks>
<P class=catlinks><A title=Special:Categories href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Categories&article=A500">Category</A>: <SPAN dir=ltr><A title="Category:Commodore Amiga" href="/wiki/Category:Commodore_Amiga">Commodore Amiga</A></SPAN></P></DIV><!-- end content -->
<DIV class=visualClear></DIV><div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/16266475-113986470039345085?l=encyclopediageneral.blogspot.com'/></div>Murat Alperennoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-16266475.post-1139864325132809222006-02-13T12:56:00.000-08:002006-02-13T12:59:20.026-08:00WarsawWarsaw[EXTRACT]<H3 id=siteSub>From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</H3>
<DIV id=contentSub></DIV>
<DIV id=jump-to-nav>Jump to: <A href="#column-one">navigation</A>, <A href="#searchInput">search</A></DIV><!-- start content -->
<DL>
<DD><I>For other uses, like the <A title="Warsaw Pact" href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact">Warsaw Pact</A>, see <A title="Warsaw (disambiguation)" href="/wiki/Warsaw_%28disambiguation%29">Warsaw (disambiguation)</A> and <A title="Warszawa (disambiguation)" href="/wiki/Warszawa_%28disambiguation%29">Warszawa (disambiguation)</A>.</I> </DD></DL>
<TABLE style="BORDER-RIGHT: gray 1px solid; BORDER-TOP: gray 1px solid; FONT-SIZE: 85%; MARGIN-LEFT: 1em; BORDER-LEFT: gray 1px solid; BORDER-BOTTOM: gray 1px solid; BORDER-COLLAPSE: collapse" cellSpacing=0 cellPadding=2 width=300 align=right border=1>
<TBODY>
<TR>
<TD style="BORDER-BOTTOM: gray 3px solid" align=middle colSpan=2><FONT size=+1><B>Warszawa</B></FONT></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD align=middle colSpan=2>
<TABLE cellSpacing=0 cellPadding=2 border=0>
<TBODY>
<TR>
<TD align=middle width=180><A class=image title="Flag of Warszawa" href="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Warsaw.svg"><IMG height=88 alt="Flag of Warszawa" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Flag_of_Warsaw.svg/140px-Flag_of_Warsaw.svg.png" width=140 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Warsaw.svg></A></TD>
<TD align=middle width=180><A class=image title="Coat of Arms of Warszawa" href="/wiki/Image:Grand_CoA_Warsaw.png"><IMG height=128 alt="Coat of Arms of Warszawa" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Grand_CoA_Warsaw.png/100px-Grand_CoA_Warsaw.png" width=100 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Grand_CoA_Warsaw.png></A></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD align=middle width=140>(<A title="Flag of Warszawa" href="/wiki/Flag_of_Warszawa">Flag</A>)</TD>
<TD align=middle width=140>(<A title="Coat of Arms of Warszawa" href="/wiki/Coat_of_Arms_of_Warszawa">Coat of Arms</A>)</TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD style="BORDER-BOTTOM: gray 3px solid" align=middle colSpan=2><FONT size=-2><A title=Motto href="/wiki/Motto">Motto</A>: <I>Contemnit procellas</I> (It defies the storms)
<I>Semper invicta</I> (Always invincible)</FONT></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TH colSpan=2><A class=image title="Location of Warszawa" href="/wiki/Image:Warszawa_Mapa.png"><IMG height=297 alt="Location of Warszawa" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/d0/Warszawa_Mapa.png/300px-Warszawa_Mapa.png" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Warszawa_Mapa.png></A></TH></TR>
<TR>
<TD><A title=Voivodship href="/wiki/Voivodship">Voivodship</A></TD>
<TD><A title="Masovian Voivodship" href="/wiki/Masovian_Voivodship">Masovian</A></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD>Municipal government</TD>
<TD><I>Rada miasta st. Warszawy</I></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD>Mayor</TD>
<TD><A class=new title="Mirosław Kochalski" href="/w/index.php?title=Miros%C5%82aw_Kochalski&action=edit">Mirosław Kochalski</A> (acting)</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD><A title=Area href="/wiki/Area">Area</A></TD>
<TD>516,9 km²</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD><A title=Population href="/wiki/Population">Population</A>
- city
- urban
- <A title="Population density" href="/wiki/Population_density">density</A></TD>
<TD>
1,692,900 (2004)
2,760,000
3258/km²</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD>Founded
City rights</TD>
<TD><A title="13th century" href="/wiki/13th_century">13th</A> century
turn of the <A title="13th century" href="/wiki/13th_century">13th</A> century</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD>Latitude
Longitude</TD>
<TD>52°15' N
21°00' E</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD><A title="Area code" href="/wiki/Area_code">Area code</A></TD>
<TD>+48 22</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD><A title="Polish car number plates" href="/wiki/Polish_car_number_plates">Car plates</A></TD>
<TD>WA to WZ</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD><A title="Twin towns" href="/wiki/Twin_towns">Twin towns</A></TD>
<TD><SMALL><A title=Astana href="/wiki/Astana">Astana</A>, <A title=Berlin href="/wiki/Berlin">Berlin</A>, <A title=Chicago href="/wiki/Chicago">Chicago</A>, <A title=Düsseldorf href="/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf">Düsseldorf</A>, <A title=Hague href="/wiki/Hague">Hague</A>, <A title="Hamamatsu, Shizuoka" href="/wiki/Hamamatsu%2C_Shizuoka">Hamamatsu</A>, <A title=Hanoi href="/wiki/Hanoi">Hanoi</A>, <A title=Kiev href="/wiki/Kiev">Kyiv</A>, <A title=Moscow href="/wiki/Moscow">Moscow</A>, <A title=Paris href="/wiki/Paris">Paris</A>, <A title=Riga href="/wiki/Riga">Riga</A>, <A title=Seoul href="/wiki/Seoul">Seoul</A>, <A title="Saint Petersburg" href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg">St. Petersburg</A>, <A title=Taipei href="/wiki/Taipei">Taipei</A>, <A title="Tel Aviv" href="/wiki/Tel_Aviv">Tel Aviv</A>, <A title=Toronto href="/wiki/Toronto">Toronto</A>, <A title=Vienna href="/wiki/Vienna">Vienna</A>, <A title=Vilnius href="/wiki/Vilnius">Vilnius</A></SMALL></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD style="BORDER-BOTTOM: gray 3px solid" align=middle colSpan=2><A class="external text" title=http://www.um.warszawa.pl/ href="http://www.um.warszawa.pl/"><FONT size=-1>Municipal Website</FONT></A></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE>
<P><B>Warsaw</B> (<A title="Polish language" href="/wiki/Polish_language">Polish</A> <I>Warszawa</I>, <A class=image title="Click on the link to the right to listen to the file" href="/wiki/Image:Loudspeaker.png"><IMG height=11 alt="Click on the link to the right to listen to the file" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Loudspeaker.png" width=12 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Loudspeaker.png></A> <A class=internal title=Warszawa.ogg href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e2/Warszawa.ogg"><SPAN class=IPA title="Pronunciation in IPA">[varˈʂava]</SPAN></A><SUP><SMALL>(<A title="Wikipedia:Media help" href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_help">?</A>)</SMALL></SUP>, in full <B>The Capital City of Warsaw</B>, <A title="Polish language" href="/wiki/Polish_language">Polish</A>: <I>Miasto Stołeczne Warszawa</I>, <A title="Albanian language" href="/wiki/Albanian_language">Albanian</A> <I>Varshava</I>) is the capital of <A title=Poland href="/wiki/Poland">Poland</A> and its largest city. It is located on the <A title=Vistula href="/wiki/Vistula">Vistula</A> river roughly 350 km from both the <A title="Baltic Sea" href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea">Baltic Sea</A> coast and the <A title="Carpathian Mountains" href="/wiki/Carpathian_Mountains">Carpathian Mountains</A>. Its population as of <A title=2004 href="/wiki/2004">2004</A> was estimated at 1,692,900, with an <A title="Urban agglomeration" href="/wiki/Urban_agglomeration">urban agglomeration</A> of approximately 2,760,000. The city area amounts to 516.9 km², with an <A title="Urban agglomeration" href="/wiki/Urban_agglomeration">urban agglomeration</A> of 6100,43 km² (Warsaw Metropolitan Area - <I>Obszar Metropolitalny Warszawy</I>).</P>
<P>The city, also the capital of <A title="Masovian Voivodship" href="/wiki/Masovian_Voivodship">Masovian Voivodship</A>, is home to many industries, including manufacturing, steel, electrical engineering, and automotive; it features 66 institutions of higher learning, including <A title="Warsaw University" href="/wiki/Warsaw_University">Warsaw University</A>, Stefan Wyszyński University, <A title="Warsaw University of Technology" href="/wiki/Warsaw_University_of_Technology">Warsaw University of Technology</A>, the Higher School of Business, and a Medical Academy. Warsaw is home to over 30 theatres, including the National Theatre and Opera and the National Philharmonic Orchestra.</P>
<TABLE class=toc id=toc summary=Contents>
<TBODY>
<TR>
<TD>
<DIV id=toctitle>
<H2>Contents</H2> <SPAN class=toctoggle>[<A class=internal id=togglelink href="javascript:toggleToc()">hide</A>]</SPAN></DIV>
<UL>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Location"><SPAN class=tocnumber>1</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Location</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Climate"><SPAN class=tocnumber>2</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Climate</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#History"><SPAN class=tocnumber>3</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>History</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Famous_people"><SPAN class=tocnumber>3.1</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Famous people</SPAN></A> </LI></UL>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Population"><SPAN class=tocnumber>4</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Population</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Historical_population"><SPAN class=tocnumber>4.1</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Historical population</SPAN></A> </LI></UL>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Municipal_government"><SPAN class=tocnumber>5</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Municipal government</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Administrative_division"><SPAN class=tocnumber>5.1</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Administrative division</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#The_mayor_.28the_President_of_Warsaw.29"><SPAN class=tocnumber>5.2</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>The mayor (the President of Warsaw)</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Municipal_government_2"><SPAN class=tocnumber>5.3</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Municipal government</SPAN></A> </LI></UL>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Politics"><SPAN class=tocnumber>6</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Politics</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Transport"><SPAN class=tocnumber>7</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Transport</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Roads_and_highways"><SPAN class=tocnumber>7.1</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Roads and highways</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Airports"><SPAN class=tocnumber>7.2</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Airports</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Mass_transit"><SPAN class=tocnumber>7.3</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Mass transit</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class=toclevel-3><A href="#Buses"><SPAN class=tocnumber>7.3.1</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Buses</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-3><A href="#Streetcars"><SPAN class=tocnumber>7.3.2</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Streetcars</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-3><A href="#Trolleybuses"><SPAN class=tocnumber>7.3.3</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Trolleybuses</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-3><A href="#Metro"><SPAN class=tocnumber>7.3.4</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Metro</SPAN></A> </LI></UL>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Railway"><SPAN class=tocnumber>7.4</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Railway</SPAN></A> </LI></UL>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Sports"><SPAN class=tocnumber>8</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Sports</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Culture"><SPAN class=tocnumber>9</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Culture</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Theatre"><SPAN class=tocnumber>9.1</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Theatre</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Music"><SPAN class=tocnumber>9.2</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Music</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Museums_and_art_galleries"><SPAN class=tocnumber>9.3</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Museums and art galleries</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Film"><SPAN class=tocnumber>9.4</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Film</SPAN></A> </LI></UL>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Education"><SPAN class=tocnumber>10</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Education</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Economy"><SPAN class=tocnumber>11</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Economy</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Business_and_commerce"><SPAN class=tocnumber>11.1</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Business and commerce</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Stock_Exchange"><SPAN class=tocnumber>11.2</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Stock Exchange</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Industry"><SPAN class=tocnumber>11.3</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Industry</SPAN></A> </LI></UL>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Tourist_attractions"><SPAN class=tocnumber>12</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Tourist attractions</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Trivia"><SPAN class=tocnumber>13</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Trivia</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#See_also"><SPAN class=tocnumber>14</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>See also</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#External_links"><SPAN class=tocnumber>15</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>External links</SPAN></A> </LI></UL></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE>
<P>
<SCRIPT type=text/javascript>
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</SCRIPT>
</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=1">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Location name=Location></A></P>
<H2>Location</H2>
<P>Warsaw <A title=Straddle href="/wiki/Straddle">straddles</A> the <A title=Vistula href="/wiki/Vistula">Vistula</A> river, approximately 370 kilometres from both the <A title="Carpathian mountains" href="/wiki/Carpathian_mountains">Carpathian mountains</A> and <A title="Baltic Sea" href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea">Baltic Sea</A>. It is located in the heartland of the <A class=new title="Masovian Plain" href="/w/index.php?title=Masovian_Plain&action=edit">Masovian Plain</A>, and its average <A title=Altitude href="/wiki/Altitude">altitude</A> is 100 m above sea level, although there are some hills (mostly artificial) located within the confines of the city.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=2">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Climate name=Climate></A></P>
<H2>Climate</H2>
<P>Warsaw's climate is <A class=new title="Continental humid" href="/w/index.php?title=Continental_humid&action=edit">continental humid</A>. The average temperature is 17 degrees <A title=Celsius href="/wiki/Celsius">Celsius</A> (-5 <A title=°C href="/wiki/%C2%B0C">°C</A> in January and up to 30 °C in July). Yearly rainfall averages at 680 <A title=Millimetre href="/wiki/Millimetre">mm</A>, the most rainy month being July.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=3">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=History name=History></A></P>
<H2>History</H2>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Warsaw by Canaletto" href="/wiki/Image:Warszawa5.jpg"><IMG height=190 alt="Warsaw by Canaletto" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Warszawa5.jpg/300px-Warszawa5.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Warszawa5.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Warszawa5.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Warsaw by <A title=Canaletto href="/wiki/Canaletto">Canaletto</A></DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Royal Castle Square" href="/wiki/Image:Warszawa-pano.jpg"><IMG height=115 alt="Royal Castle Square" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Warszawa-pano.jpg/300px-Warszawa-pano.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Warszawa-pano.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Warszawa-pano.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Royal Castle Square</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Royal Castle" href="/wiki/Image:37_13.jpg"><IMG height=225 alt="Royal Castle" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/37_13.jpg/300px-37_13.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:37_13.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:37_13.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV><A title="Royal Castle in Warsaw" href="/wiki/Royal_Castle_in_Warsaw">Royal Castle</A></DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Old Town" href="/wiki/Image:4_Warszawa_23.jpg"><IMG height=200 alt="Old Town" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/4_Warszawa_23.jpg/300px-4_Warszawa_23.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:4_Warszawa_23.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:4_Warszawa_23.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Old Town</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Łazienki (Baths) Palace" href="/wiki/Image:4_Warszawa-Lazienki_Krolewskie_126.jpg"><IMG height=200 alt="Łazienki (Baths) Palace" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/4_Warszawa-Lazienki_Krolewskie_126.jpg/300px-4_Warszawa-Lazienki_Krolewskie_126.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:4_Warszawa-Lazienki_Krolewskie_126.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:4_Warszawa-Lazienki_Krolewskie_126.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV><I>Łazienki</I> (Baths) Palace</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 252px"><A class=internal title="Map of Warsaw from the 1888 edition of the Meyers Konversations-Lexikon" href="/wiki/Image:Karte_Warschau_MKL1888.png"><IMG height=219 alt="Map of Warsaw from the 1888 edition of the Meyers Konversations-Lexikon" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Karte_Warschau_MKL1888.png/250px-Karte_Warschau_MKL1888.png" width=250 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Karte_Warschau_MKL1888.png></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Karte_Warschau_MKL1888.png"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Map of Warsaw from the 1888 edition of the <I><A title="Meyers Konversations-Lexikon" href="/wiki/Meyers_Konversations-Lexikon">Meyers Konversations-Lexikon</A></I></DIV></DIV></DIV>
<P>The first fortified settlements on the site of today's Warsaw were <A class=new title=Bródno href="/w/index.php?title=Br%C3%B3dno&action=edit">Bródno</A> (<A title="9th century" href="/wiki/9th_century">9th</A>/<A title="10th century" href="/wiki/10th_century">10th</A> century) and <A class=new title=Ujazdów href="/w/index.php?title=Ujazd%C3%B3w&action=edit">Jazdów</A> (<A title="12th century" href="/wiki/12th_century">12th</A>/<A title="13th century" href="/wiki/13th_century">13th</A> century). After Jazdów was raided in <A title=1281 href="/wiki/1281">1281</A> by <A class=new title="Boleslaus II of Masovia" href="/w/index.php?title=Boleslaus_II_of_Masovia&action=edit">Boleslaus II</A>, the Duke of <A title=Płock href="/wiki/P%C5%82ock">Płock</A>, a new similar settlement was lodged on the grounds of a small fishing village called Warszowa. In the beginning of the <A title="14th century" href="/wiki/14th_century">14th</A> century it became one of the seats of the <A title="Dukes of Masovia" href="/wiki/Dukes_of_Masovia">Dukes of Masovia</A>, in <A title=1413 href="/wiki/1413">1413</A> becoming the capital of Masovia. Upon the extinction of the local ducal line, the duchy was reincorporated into the <A title=Poland href="/wiki/Poland">Polish Crown</A> in <A title=1526 href="/wiki/1526">1526</A>. In <A title=1529 href="/wiki/1529">1529</A> Warsaw for the first time became the seat of the <A title=Sejm href="/wiki/Sejm">General Sejm</A>, permanent since <A title=1569 href="/wiki/1569">1569</A>. In <A title=1573 href="/wiki/1573">1573</A> Warsaw gave its name to the <A title="Warsaw Confederation" href="/wiki/Warsaw_Confederation">Warsaw Confederation</A>, an agreement by the <A title=Szlachta href="/wiki/Szlachta">Polish gentry</A> to tolerate different religious faiths in the Kingdom of Poland.</P>
<P>Due to its central location between the <A title="Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth" href="/wiki/Polish-Lithuanian_Commonwealth">Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth</A>'s capitals of <A title=Vilnius href="/wiki/Vilnius">Vilna</A> and <A title=Kraków href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w">Cracow</A>, Warsaw became the capital of the Commonwealth and at the same time of the <A title=Poland href="/wiki/Poland">Polish Crown</A> in <A title=1596 href="/wiki/1596">1596</A>, when King <A title="Sigismund III of Poland" href="/wiki/Sigismund_III_of_Poland">Sigismund III Vasa</A> moved the capital from Cracow. Warsaw remained the capital of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth until <A title=1795 href="/wiki/1795">1795</A>, when it was annexed by the <A title="Kingdom of Prussia" href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</A> to become the capital of the province of <A title="New East Prussia" href="/wiki/New_East_Prussia">New East Prussia</A>. Liberated by <A title=Napoleon href="/wiki/Napoleon">Napoleon</A>'s army in <A title=1807 href="/wiki/1807">1807</A>, Warsaw was made the capital of the newly created <A title="Duchy of Warsaw" href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Warsaw">Duchy of Warsaw</A>. Following the decisions of the <A title="Congress of Vienna" href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna">Congress of Vienna</A> of <A title=1815 href="/wiki/1815">1815</A>, Warsaw became the center of the <A title="Congress Poland" href="/wiki/Congress_Poland">Polish Kingdom</A>, a constitutional monarchy under a personal union with the <A title="Imperial Russia" href="/wiki/Imperial_Russia">Imperial Russia</A>. Following the repeated violations of the Polish constitution by the <A title=Russia href="/wiki/Russia">Russians</A>, the <A title=1830 href="/wiki/1830">1830</A> <A title="November Uprising" href="/wiki/November_Uprising">November Uprising</A> broke out. However, the Polish-Russian war of <A title=1831 href="/wiki/1831">1831</A> ended in the uprising's defeat and in the curtailment of the Kingdom's autonomy. On <A title="February 27" href="/wiki/February_27">27 February</A> <A title=1861 href="/wiki/1861">1861</A> a Warsaw crowd protesting the Russian rule over Poland was fired upon by the Russian troops. Five people were killed. Underground <A title="Polish National Government" href="/wiki/Polish_National_Government">Polish National Government</A> resided in Warsaw during <A title="January Uprising" href="/wiki/January_Uprising">January Uprising</A> in 1863-1864.</P>
<P>Warsaw became the capital of the newly independent <A title="Second Polish Republic" href="/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic">Poland</A> again in <A title=1918 href="/wiki/1918">1918</A>.</P>
<P>Warsaw flourished in the late nineteenth century under Mayor <A title="Sokrates Starynkiewicz" href="/wiki/Sokrates_Starynkiewicz">Sokrates Starynkiewicz</A> (<A title=1875 href="/wiki/1875">1875</A>–<A title=1892 href="/wiki/1892">1892</A>), a Russian-born general appointed by Tsar <A title="Alexander III of Russia" href="/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Russia">Alexander III</A>. Under Starynkiewicz Warsaw saw its first water and sewer systems designed and built by the English engineer <A title="William Lindley" href="/wiki/William_Lindley">William Lindley</A> and his son, <A title="William Heerlein Lindley" href="/wiki/William_Heerlein_Lindley">William Heerlein Lindley</A>, as well as the expansion and modernization of <A title=Trams href="/wiki/Trams">trams</A>, <A title="Street lighting" href="/wiki/Street_lighting">street lighting</A> and <A class=new title="Gas works" href="/w/index.php?title=Gas_works&action=edit">gas works</A>.</P>
<P>In the course of the <A title="Polish-Bolshevik War" href="/wiki/Polish-Bolshevik_War">Polish-Bolshevik War</A> of <A title=1920 href="/wiki/1920">1920</A>, the huge <A title="Battle of Warsaw (1920)" href="/wiki/Battle_of_Warsaw_%281920%29">Battle of Warsaw</A> was fought on the Eastern outskirts of the city in which the capital of Poland was successfully defended and the <A title="Red Army" href="/wiki/Red_Army">Red Army</A> defeated.</P>
<P>Warsaw is notable among <A title=Europe href="/wiki/Europe">Europe</A>'s capital cities not for its size, age, or beauty, but for its indestructibility. It is a <A title="Phoenix (bird)" href="/wiki/Phoenix_%28bird%29">phoenix</A> that has risen repeatedly from the ashes. Having suffered dreadful damage during the <A title=Sweden href="/wiki/Sweden">Swedish</A> and <A title="Prussia (state)" href="/wiki/Prussia_%28state%29">Prussian</A> wars of <A title=1655 href="/wiki/1655">1655</A>–<A title=1656 href="/wiki/1656">1656</A>, it was again assaulted in <A title=1794 href="/wiki/1794">1794</A>, when the <A title=Russia href="/wiki/Russia">Russian</A> army <A title="Battle of Praga" href="/wiki/Battle_of_Praga">massacred the population of the right-bank suburb of Praga</A>. Its most remarkable act of survival, though, was its rebirth following its almost complete destruction during the <A title="Second World War" href="/wiki/Second_World_War">Second World War</A>.</P>
<P>The <A title="Second World War" href="/wiki/Second_World_War">Second World War</A> began when <A title=Germany href="/wiki/Germany">Germany</A> invaded western Poland on <A title="September 1" href="/wiki/September_1">1 September</A> <A title=1939 href="/wiki/1939">1939</A>. On <A title="September 17" href="/wiki/September_17">17 September</A> eastern Poland was invaded by the <A title=USSR href="/wiki/USSR">USSR</A>. Poland capitulated after 6 weeks of fighting. Western Poland was incorporated into the German <A title=Reich href="/wiki/Reich">Reich</A>, eastern Poland into the USSR, while central Poland, including Warsaw, came under the rule of the <A title="General Government" href="/wiki/General_Government">General Government</A>, a <A title=Nazi href="/wiki/Nazi">Nazi</A> colonial administration. In the course of the <A title="September Campaign" href="/wiki/September_Campaign">September Campaign</A>, Warsaw was <A title="Bombing of Warsaw in World War II" href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Warsaw_in_World_War_II">severely bombed</A>, and in the course of the <A title="Siege of Warsaw" href="/wiki/Siege_of_Warsaw">Siege of Warsaw</A> approximately 10 to 15% of its buildings were destroyed.</P>
<P>Warsaw became an occupied city under the control of the Nazi <A title=SS href="/wiki/SS">SS</A>. All higher education institutions were immediately closed and Warsaw's entire Jewish population — several hundred thousand, some 30% of the city — herded into the <A title="Warsaw Ghetto" href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto">Warsaw Ghetto</A>. When the order came to liquidate the Ghetto as part of <A title=Hitler href="/wiki/Hitler">Hitler</A>'s "<A title="Final solution" href="/wiki/Final_solution">final solution</A>", Jewish fighters launched the <A title="Warsaw Ghetto Uprising" href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto_Uprising">Warsaw Ghetto Uprising</A>. Despite being heavily outgunned and outnumbered, the Ghetto held out for almost a month. When the fighting ended, the survivors were massacred. In Autumn 1942 Germans built the <A title="Warsaw Concentration Camp" href="/wiki/Warsaw_Concentration_Camp">Warsaw Concentration Camp</A>, where until August 1944 probably 200,000 Poles were killed in the gas chambers.</P>
<P>During <A title=1943 href="/wiki/1943">1943</A> and <A title=1944 href="/wiki/1944">1944</A> the tide of the war turned, as the <A title=USSR href="/wiki/USSR">USSR</A>, which had been at war with Germany since <A title=1941 href="/wiki/1941">1941</A>, inflicted a number of severe defeats on the German army. By July <A title=1944 href="/wiki/1944">1944</A> the <A title="Soviet Union" href="/wiki/Soviet_Union">Soviets</A> were deep into the Polish territory, pursuing the Germans toward Warsaw. Knowing that <A title=Stalin href="/wiki/Stalin">Stalin</A> was hostile to the idea of an independent Poland, the <A title="Polish government-in-exile" href="/wiki/Polish_government-in-exile">Polish government-in-exile</A> based in <A title=London href="/wiki/London">London</A> gave orders to the underground <A title="Armia Krajowa" href="/wiki/Armia_Krajowa">Home Army</A> (AK) to try to seize the control of Warsaw from the Nazis just before the Soviets arrive. Thus, on <A title="August 1" href="/wiki/August_1">1 August</A> <A title=1944 href="/wiki/1944">1944</A>, as the Soviet army was nearing the city very fast, the <A title="Home Army" href="/wiki/Home_Army">Home Army</A> and the general population started the <A title="Warsaw Uprising" href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising">Warsaw Uprising</A>.</P>
<P>Despite Stalin's hostility towards Poland, the <A title=Poles href="/wiki/Poles">Poles</A> had expected that the Soviet troops would assist them against their common German enemy. However, after the Red Army captured the right-bank Warsaw, the Soviet offensive was abruptly stopped, while the Germans went on to ruthlessly suppress the uprising. Although the insurgency, planned to last 48 hours, held out for 63 days, eventually the Home Army fighters were forced to capitulate. They were transported to the <A title=POW href="/wiki/POW">POW</A> camps in Germany, while the entire civilian population was expelled. Hitler, ignoring the negotiated terms of the capitulation, ordered the entire city to be razed to the ground, and the library and museum collections burned. When on <A title="January 17" href="/wiki/January_17">17 January</A> <A title=1945 href="/wiki/1945">1945</A> the Soviets crossed Vistula and entered the left-bank Warsaw, 85% of the city had been destroyed, including the historic Old Town and the Royal Castle. The surviving <A title="Home Army" href="/wiki/Home_Army">Home Army</A> fighters were rounded up by the <A title=NKVD href="/wiki/NKVD">NKVD</A> and either murdered or deported to <A title=Siberia href="/wiki/Siberia">Siberia</A>.</P>
<P>The city was once considered a shining metropolis, but due to total destruction, it has lost its <A title=Baroque href="/wiki/Baroque">baroque</A> tinge. Although many of the destroyed significant historical buildings were restored, little remains of the resplendence of Warsaw baroque.</P>
<P>After the war, <A title="Boleslaw Bierut" href="/wiki/Boleslaw_Bierut">Boleslaw Bierut</A>'s <A title="Puppet regime" href="/wiki/Puppet_regime">puppet regime</A> set up by Stalin made Warsaw the capital of the <A title=Communist href="/wiki/Communist">communist</A> <I><A title="People's Republic of Poland" href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_Poland">People's Republic of Poland</A></I>, and the city was resettled and rebuilt. Large <A title=Prefabricated href="/wiki/Prefabricated">prefabricated</A> <A title="Housing project" href="/wiki/Housing_project">housing projects</A> were erected in Warsaw to address the housing shortage. Few of the inhabitants of the pre-war Poland returned: Hundreds of thousands were dead, thousands more in exile from the new regime. Nonetheless, the city resumed its role as the capital of Poland and the country's center of political and economic life. Many of the historic streets, buildings, and churches were restored to their original form. In <A title=1980 href="/wiki/1980">1980</A>, Warsaw's historic Old Town was inscribed onto <A title=UNESCO href="/wiki/UNESCO">UNESCO</A>'s <A title="World Heritage" href="/wiki/World_Heritage">World Heritage</A> list.</P>
<P>In <A title=1995 href="/wiki/1995">1995</A> the <A title="Warsaw Metro" href="/wiki/Warsaw_Metro">Warsaw Metro</A> finally opened, and with the entry of Poland into the <A title="European Union" href="/wiki/European_Union">European Union</A> in <A title=2004 href="/wiki/2004">2004</A>, Warsaw is currently experiencing the biggest economic boom of its history.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=4">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Famous_people name=Famous_people></A></P>
<H3>Famous people</H3>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Seated statue of Nicolaus Copernicus (Mikołaj Kopernik) by Bertel Thorvaldsen in front of the Polish Academy of Sciences." href="/wiki/Image:StaszicaPalace.jpg"><IMG height=195 alt="Seated statue of Nicolaus Copernicus (Mikołaj Kopernik) by Bertel Thorvaldsen in front of the Polish Academy of Sciences." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/StaszicaPalace.jpg/300px-StaszicaPalace.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:StaszicaPalace.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:StaszicaPalace.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Seated statue of <A title="Nicolaus Copernicus" href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</A> (<I>Mikołaj Kopernik</I>) by <A title="Bertel Thorvaldsen" href="/wiki/Bertel_Thorvaldsen">Bertel Thorvaldsen</A> in front of the <A title="Polish Academy of Sciences" href="/wiki/Polish_Academy_of_Sciences">Polish Academy of Sciences</A>.</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Bristol Hotel" href="/wiki/Image:BristolHotel2.jpg"><IMG height=227 alt="Bristol Hotel" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/BristolHotel2.jpg/300px-BristolHotel2.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:BristolHotel2.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:BristolHotel2.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Bristol Hotel</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<P>Famous people who have been born, have lived or have worked in Warsaw:</P>
<UL>
<LI><A title="Mordechai Anielewicz" href="/wiki/Mordechai_Anielewicz">Mordechai Anielewicz</A> (<A title=1919 href="/wiki/1919">1919</A>–<A title=1943 href="/wiki/1943">1943</A>?), commander of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
<LI><A title="Eugeniusz Bodo" href="/wiki/Eugeniusz_Bodo">Eugeniusz Bodo</A> (<A title=1899 href="/wiki/1899">1899</A>–<A title=1943 href="/wiki/1943">1943</A>?), singer and actor
<LI><A title="Zbigniew Brzeziński" href="/wiki/Zbigniew_Brzezi%C5%84ski">Zbigniew Brzeziński</A> (b. <A title=1928 href="/wiki/1928">1928</A>), political scientist, advisor to <A title="United States" href="/wiki/United_States">US</A> President <A title="Jimmy Carter" href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter">Jimmy Carter</A>.
<LI><A title="Fryderyk Chopin" href="/wiki/Fryderyk_Chopin">Fryderyk Chopin</A>, (<A title=1810 href="/wiki/1810">1810</A>–<A title=1849 href="/wiki/1849">1849</A>), the greatest <A title="List of Polish composers" href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_composers">Polish composer</A>
<LI><A title="Maria Skłodowska-Curie" href="/wiki/Maria_Sk%C5%82odowska-Curie">Maria Skłodowska-Curie</A>, (<A title=1867 href="/wiki/1867">1867</A>–<A title=1934 href="/wiki/1934">1934</A>), pioneer researcher into radioactivity, two-time <A title="Nobel Prize" href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize">Nobel Prize</A> winner
<LI><A title="Lucyna Ćwierczakiewiczowa" href="/wiki/Lucyna_%C4%86wierczakiewiczowa">Lucyna Ćwierczakiewiczowa</A> (<A title=1829 href="/wiki/1829">1829</A>–<A title=1901 href="/wiki/1901">1901</A>), the first Polish cookbook author
<LI><A title="Witold Gombrowicz" href="/wiki/Witold_Gombrowicz">Witold Gombrowicz</A> (<A title=1904 href="/wiki/1904">1904</A>–<A title=1969 href="/wiki/1969">1969</A>), novelist and drama writer
<LI><A title="Abraham Joshua Heschel" href="/wiki/Abraham_Joshua_Heschel">Abraham Joshua Heschel</A> (<A title=1907 href="/wiki/1907">1907</A>-<A title=1972 href="/wiki/1972">1972</A>), Jewish theologian and philosopher
<LI><A title="Agnieszka Holland" href="/wiki/Agnieszka_Holland">Agnieszka Holland</A> (b. <A title=1948 href="/wiki/1948">1948</A>), internationally acclaimed film director
<LI><A title="Adam Jarzębski" href="/wiki/Adam_Jarz%C4%99bski">Adam Jarzębski</A> (ca 1590-1649), composer and violinist, author of the first guide to Warsaw
<LI><A title="Jacek Kaczmarski" href="/wiki/Jacek_Kaczmarski">Jacek Kaczmarski</A>, (<A title=1957 href="/wiki/1957">1957</A>–<A title=2004 href="/wiki/2004">2004</A>), songwriter, poet and author
<LI><A title="Ryszard Kapuściński" href="/wiki/Ryszard_Kapu%C5%9Bci%C5%84ski">Ryszard Kapuściński</A> (b. <A title=1932 href="/wiki/1932">1932</A>), writer and journalist
<LI><A title="Krzysztof Kieślowski" href="/wiki/Krzysztof_Kie%C5%9Blowski">Krzysztof Kieślowski</A> (<A title=1941 href="/wiki/1941">1941</A>–<A title=1996 href="/wiki/1996">1996</A>), internationally acclaimed film director
<LI><A title="Krzysztof Komeda" href="/wiki/Krzysztof_Komeda">Krzysztof Komeda</A>, (<A title=1931 href="/wiki/1931">1931</A>–<A title=1969 href="/wiki/1969">1969</A>), free jazz pioneer, composer
<LI><A title="Janusz Korczak" href="/wiki/Janusz_Korczak">Janusz Korczak</A> (1878 or 1879-1942), writer, publicist, educator, children's rights advocate.
<LI><A title="Ryszard Kukliński" href="/wiki/Ryszard_Kukli%C5%84ski">Ryszard Kukliński</A> (<A title=1930 href="/wiki/1930">1930</A>–<A title=2004 href="/wiki/2004">2004</A>), a <A title=CIA href="/wiki/CIA">CIA</A> spy during the <A title="Cold War" href="/wiki/Cold_War">Cold War</A>
<LI><A title="Kazimierz Kuratowski" href="/wiki/Kazimierz_Kuratowski">Kazimierz Kuratowski</A> (<A title=1896 href="/wiki/1896">1896</A>–<A title=1980 href="/wiki/1980">1980</A>), mathematician
<LI><A title="Janusz Kusociński" href="/wiki/Janusz_Kusoci%C5%84ski">Janusz Kusociński</A> (<A title=1907 href="/wiki/1907">1907</A>–<A title=1940 href="/wiki/1940">1940</A>), athlete, champion at the <A title="1932 Summer Olympics" href="/wiki/1932_Summer_Olympics">1932 Summer Olympics</A>
<LI><A title="Tamara de Lempicka" href="/wiki/Tamara_de_Lempicka">Tamara de Lempicka</A> (<A title=1898 href="/wiki/1898">1898</A>–<A title=1980 href="/wiki/1980">1980</A>), painter
<LI><A title="Witold Lutosławski" href="/wiki/Witold_Lutos%C5%82awski">Witold Lutosławski</A>, (<A title=1913 href="/wiki/1913">1913</A>–<A title=1994 href="/wiki/1994">1994</A>), <A title="List of Polish composers" href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_composers">composer</A>
<LI><A title="Benoît Mandelbrot" href="/wiki/Beno%C3%AEt_Mandelbrot">Benoît Mandelbrot</A> (b. <A title=1924 href="/wiki/1924">1924</A>), <A title=Mathematician href="/wiki/Mathematician">mathematician</A> and creator of <A title="Mandelbrot set" href="/wiki/Mandelbrot_set">Mandelbrot set</A>
<LI><A class=new title="Icchok Lejb Perec" href="/w/index.php?title=Icchok_Lejb_Perec&action=edit">Icchok Lejb Perec</A> (<A title=1851 href="/wiki/1851">1851</A>-<A title=1915 href="/wiki/1915">1915</A>), Yiddish novelist, poet and playwright
<LI><A title="Bolesław Prus" href="/wiki/Boles%C5%82aw_Prus">Bolesław Prus</A> (<A title=1847 href="/wiki/1847">1847</A>-<A title=1912 href="/wiki/1912">1912</A>), novelist
<LI><A title="Władysław Reymont" href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Reymont">Władysław Reymont</A> (<A title=1867 href="/wiki/1867">1867</A>–<A title=1925 href="/wiki/1925">1925</A>), novelist, <A title="Nobel Prize" href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize">Nobel Prize</A> winner
<LI><A title="Wacław Sierpiński" href="/wiki/Wac%C5%82aw_Sierpi%C5%84ski">Wacław Sierpiński</A> (<A title=1882 href="/wiki/1882">1882</A>–<A title=1969 href="/wiki/1969">1969</A>), mathematician
<LI><A title="Stefan Starzyński" href="/wiki/Stefan_Starzy%C5%84ski">Stefan Starzyński</A> (<A title=1893 href="/wiki/1893">1893</A>–<A title=1943 href="/wiki/1943">1943</A>?), heroic mayor of Warsaw, <A title=1934 href="/wiki/1934">1934</A>–<A title=1939 href="/wiki/1939">1939</A>, murdered by the Nazis.
<LI><A title="Stanisław Staszic" href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Staszic">Stanisław Staszic</A> (<A title=1755 href="/wiki/1755">1755</A>–<A title=1826 href="/wiki/1826">1826</A>) clergyman, writer, publicist, translator, philosopher and <A title="The Age of Enlightenment" href="/wiki/The_Age_of_Enlightenment">Enlightenment</A> activist;
<LI><A title="Władysław Szpilman" href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_Szpilman">Władysław Szpilman</A>, (<A title=1911 href="/wiki/1911">1911</A>–<A title=2000 href="/wiki/2000">2000</A>), <A title="List of Polish composers" href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_composers">composer</A> and author of <I><A title="The Pianist (memoir)" href="/wiki/The_Pianist_%28memoir%29">The Pianist</A></I>
<LI><A title="Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz" href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Ignacy_Witkiewicz">Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz</A> aka <I>Witkacy</I> (<A title=1885 href="/wiki/1885">1885</A>–<A title=1939 href="/wiki/1939">1939</A>), writer and painter
<LI><A title="Janusz A. Zajdel" href="/wiki/Janusz_A._Zajdel">Janusz A. Zajdel</A> (<A title=1938 href="/wiki/1938">1938</A>–<A title=1995 href="/wiki/1995">1995</A>), science-fiction writer </LI></UL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=5">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Population name=Population></A></P>
<H2>Population</H2>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Presidential Palace, Warsaw, with equestrian statue of Prince Józef Poniatowski by Bertel Thorvaldsen." href="/wiki/Image:2_Palac_Prezydencki_30.jpg"><IMG height=197 alt="Presidential Palace, Warsaw, with equestrian statue of Prince Józef Poniatowski by Bertel Thorvaldsen." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/2_Palac_Prezydencki_30.jpg/300px-2_Palac_Prezydencki_30.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:2_Palac_Prezydencki_30.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:2_Palac_Prezydencki_30.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV><A title="Presidential Palace, Warsaw" href="/wiki/Presidential_Palace%2C_Warsaw">Presidential Palace, Warsaw</A>, with equestrian statue of Prince <A title="Józef Poniatowski" href="/wiki/J%C3%B3zef_Poniatowski">Józef Poniatowski</A> by <A title="Bertel Thorvaldsen" href="/wiki/Bertel_Thorvaldsen">Bertel Thorvaldsen</A>.</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=6">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Historical_population name=Historical_population></A></P>
<H3>Historical population</H3>
<UL>
<LI><A title=1700 href="/wiki/1700">1700</A>: 30,000 (estimated)
<LI><A title=1792 href="/wiki/1792">1792</A>: 120,000
<LI><A title=1800 href="/wiki/1800">1800</A>: 63,400
<LI><A title=1830 href="/wiki/1830">1830</A>: 139,700
<LI><A title=1850 href="/wiki/1850">1850</A>: 163,600
<LI><A title=1882 href="/wiki/1882">1882</A>: 383,000
<LI><A title=1900 href="/wiki/1900">1900</A>: 686,000
<LI><A title=1925 href="/wiki/1925">1925</A>: 1,003,000
<LI><A title=1939 href="/wiki/1939">1939</A>: 1,300,000
<LI><A title=1945 href="/wiki/1945">1945</A>: 422,000 <SMALL>(in September)</SMALL>
<LI><A title=1956 href="/wiki/1956">1956</A>: 1,000,000
<LI><A title=1960 href="/wiki/1960">1960</A>: 1,139,200
<LI><A title=1970 href="/wiki/1970">1970</A>: 1,315,600
<LI><A title=1975 href="/wiki/1975">1975</A>: 1,436,100
<LI><A title=1980 href="/wiki/1980">1980</A>: 1,596,100
<LI><A title=1990 href="/wiki/1990">1990</A>: 1,611,800
<LI><A title=2002 href="/wiki/2002">2002</A>: 1,707,100 (after incorporating <A class=new title=Wesoła href="/w/index.php?title=Weso%C5%82a&action=edit">Wesoła</A>)
<LI><A title=2004 href="/wiki/2004">2004</A>: 1,676,600 (urban agglomeration 2,760,000)
<LI><A title=2005 href="/wiki/2005">2005</A>: 1,694,825 </LI></UL>
<P><BR style="CLEAR: right"></P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=7">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Municipal_government name=Municipal_government></A></P>
<H2>Municipal government</H2>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Belweder in Łazienki Park" href="/wiki/Image:5_Warszawa_083.jpg"><IMG height=200 alt="Belweder in Łazienki Park" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/5_Warszawa_083.jpg/300px-5_Warszawa_083.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:5_Warszawa_083.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:5_Warszawa_083.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Belweder in Łazienki Park</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Łazienki Palace" href="/wiki/Image:4_Warszawa-Lazienki_Krolewskie_141.jpg"><IMG height=195 alt="Łazienki Palace" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/4_Warszawa-Lazienki_Krolewskie_141.jpg/300px-4_Warszawa-Lazienki_Krolewskie_141.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:4_Warszawa-Lazienki_Krolewskie_141.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:4_Warszawa-Lazienki_Krolewskie_141.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Łazienki Palace</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Chopin Monument" href="/wiki/Image:4_Warszawa-Lazienki_Krolewskie_107.jpg"><IMG height=200 alt="Chopin Monument" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/4_Warszawa-Lazienki_Krolewskie_107.jpg/300px-4_Warszawa-Lazienki_Krolewskie_107.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:4_Warszawa-Lazienki_Krolewskie_107.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:4_Warszawa-Lazienki_Krolewskie_107.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Chopin Monument</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=8">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Administrative_division name=Administrative_division></A></P>
<H3>Administrative division</H3>
<P>Warsaw is a municipal <I><A title=Powiat href="/wiki/Powiat">powiat</A></I> (<I>county</I>) and is further divided into 18 boroughs, each one known as a <I>dzielnica</I> (<A class="external text" title="http://www.e-warsaw.pl/images/mapa dzielnice.gif" href="http://www.e-warsaw.pl/images/mapa_dzielnice.gif">map</A>), each one with its own administrative body. Each of the boroughs is divided into neighborhoods which are not officially recognized by the city but known by most Varsovians. The best known neighborhoods are <A title="Stare Miasto" href="/wiki/Stare_Miasto">Stare Miasto</A> and <A title="Nowe Miasto" href="/wiki/Nowe_Miasto">Nowe Miasto</A> in the borough of <A title=Warszawa-Śródmieście href="/wiki/Warszawa-%C5%9Ar%C3%B3dmie%C5%9Bcie">Śródmieście</A>.</P>
<P>Warsaw's boroughs (since <A title=2002 href="/wiki/2002">2002</A>):</P>
<UL>
<LI><A title=Bemowo href="/wiki/Bemowo">Bemowo</A>
<LI><A class=new title=Białołęka href="/w/index.php?title=Bia%C5%82o%C5%82%C4%99ka&action=edit">Białołęka</A>
<LI><A class=new title=Bielany href="/w/index.php?title=Bielany&action=edit">Bielany</A>
<LI><A title=Mokotów href="/wiki/Mokot%C3%B3w">Mokotów</A>
<LI><A class=new title=Ochota href="/w/index.php?title=Ochota&action=edit">Ochota</A>
<LI><A class=new title="Praga Północ" href="/w/index.php?title=Praga_P%C3%B3%C5%82noc&action=edit">Praga Północ</A>
<LI><A title="Praga Południe" href="/wiki/Praga_Po%C5%82udnie">Praga Południe</A>
<LI><A title=Rembertów href="/wiki/Rembert%C3%B3w">Rembertów</A>
<LI><A title=Warszawa-Śródmieście href="/wiki/Warszawa-%C5%9Ar%C3%B3dmie%C5%9Bcie">Śródmieście</A>
<LI><A class=new title=Targówek href="/w/index.php?title=Targ%C3%B3wek&action=edit">Targówek</A>
<LI><A class=new title=Warszawa-Ursus href="/w/index.php?title=Warszawa-Ursus&action=edit">Ursus</A>
<LI><A title=Ursynów href="/wiki/Ursyn%C3%B3w">Ursynów</A>
<LI><A class=new title=Wawer href="/w/index.php?title=Wawer&action=edit">Wawer</A>
<LI><A class=new title=Wesoła href="/w/index.php?title=Weso%C5%82a&action=edit">Wesoła</A> (since <A title=2002 href="/wiki/2002">2002</A>; a separate city before then)
<LI><A title=Wilanów href="/wiki/Wilan%C3%B3w">Wilanów</A>
<LI><A class=new title=Włochy href="/w/index.php?title=W%C5%82ochy&action=edit">Włochy</A>
<LI><A title=Wola href="/wiki/Wola">Wola</A>
<LI><A title=Żoliborz href="/wiki/%C5%BBoliborz">Żoliborz</A> </LI></UL>
<P>Notable suburbs include (number of inhabitants given in brackets):</P>
<UL>
<LI><A title="Grodzisk Mazowiecki" href="/wiki/Grodzisk_Mazowiecki">Grodzisk Mazowiecki</A> (24,900)
<LI>Konstancin-Jeziorna (15,000)
<LI><A title=Legionowo href="/wiki/Legionowo">Legionowo</A> (50,600)
<LI><A title=Marki href="/wiki/Marki">Marki</A> (19,000)
<LI><A title="Nowy Dwór Mazowiecki" href="/wiki/Nowy_Dw%C3%B3r_Mazowiecki">Nowy Dwór Mazowiecki</A> (27,200)
<LI><A title=Otwock href="/wiki/Otwock">Otwock</A> (44,000)
<LI><A title=Piaseczno href="/wiki/Piaseczno">Piaseczno</A> (25,200)
<LI><A title=Piastów href="/wiki/Piast%C3%B3w">Piastów</A> (23,700)
<LI><A title=Pruszków href="/wiki/Pruszk%C3%B3w">Pruszków</A> (53,000)
<LI><A title=Wołomin href="/wiki/Wo%C5%82omin">Wołomin</A> (36,500)
<LI><A title=Żyrardów href="/wiki/%C5%BByrard%C3%B3w">Żyrardów</A> (31,900) </LI></UL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=9">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=The_mayor_.28the_President_of_Warsaw.29 name=The_mayor_.28the_President_of_Warsaw.29></A></P>
<H3>The mayor (the President of Warsaw)</H3>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Commission Palace" href="/wiki/Image:KomisjaPalace.jpg"><IMG height=117 alt="Commission Palace" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/KomisjaPalace.jpg/300px-KomisjaPalace.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:KomisjaPalace.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:KomisjaPalace.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Commission Palace</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DL>
<DD>
<DL>
<DD><I><SMALL>See also: <A title="President of Warsaw" href="/wiki/President_of_Warsaw">President of Warsaw</A></SMALL></I> </DD></DL></DD></DL>
<P>Following the <I>Warsaw Act</I> (<I>Ustawa warszawska</I>) of <A title="October 27" href="/wiki/October_27">October 27</A>, <A title=2002 href="/wiki/2002">2002</A>, the President of Warsaw carries out the executive duties in the city. His prerogative is, among others, governing the city-owned property that constitutes a major part of the city. The current acting President of Warsaw is <A class=new title="Mirosław Kochalski" href="/w/index.php?title=Miros%C5%82aw_Kochalski&action=edit">Mirosław Kochalski</A>.</P>
<P>
</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=10">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Municipal_government_2 name=Municipal_government_2></A></P>
<H3>Municipal government</H3>
<P>The <I>Warsaw Act</I> abolished all the former counties around Warsaw and formed one <I>city <A title=Powiat href="/wiki/Powiat">powiat</A></I> with a unified municipal government.</P>
<P>Legislative power in Warsaw is vested in a <A title=Unicameral href="/wiki/Unicameral">unicameral</A> City Council (<I>Rada Miasta</I>), which comprises 60 members. Council members are elected directly every four years. Like most legislative bodies, the City Council divides itself into committees which have the oversight of various functions of the city government. Bills passed by a simple majority are sent to the mayor (the President of Warsaw), who may sign them into law. If the mayor vetoes a bill, the Council has 30 days to override the veto by a two-thirds majority vote.</P>
<P>Each of the 18 separate city districts has its own council (<I>Rada dzielnicy</I>). Their duties are focused on aiding the President and the City Council, as well as supervising various municipal companies, city-owned property and schools. The head of each of the District Councils is named the Mayor (<I>Burmistrz</I>) and is elected by the local council from the candidates proposed by the President of Warsaw.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=11">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Politics name=Politics></A></P>
<H2>Politics</H2>
<DIV class="thumb tleft">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 226px"><A class=internal title="Sejm building." href="/wiki/Image:Sejm.jpg"><IMG height=140 alt="Sejm building." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8f/Sejm.jpg" width=224 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Sejm.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Sejm.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV><I><A title=Sejm href="/wiki/Sejm">Sejm</A></I> building.</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DL>
<DD>
<DL>
<DD><I>Main article: <A title="Members of Sejm from Warsaw constituency" href="/wiki/Members_of_Sejm_from_Warsaw_constituency">Members of Sejm from Warsaw constituency</A></I> </DD></DL></DD></DL>
<P>As the capital of Poland, Warsaw is the political center of the country. All state agencies are located there, including the <A title=Sejm href="/wiki/Sejm">Polish Parliament</A>, the <A title="President of Poland" href="/wiki/President_of_Poland">Presidential Office</A> and the Supreme Court. In the Polish parliament both the city and the area are represented by 31 <A title="Member of Parliament" href="/wiki/Member_of_Parliament">MPs</A> (out of 460). Additionally, two politicians were recently elected <A title="Member of the European Parliament" href="/wiki/Member_of_the_European_Parliament">MEPs</A>.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=12">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Transport name=Transport></A></P>
<H2>Transport</H2>
<P>Although Warsaw was heavily damaged during <A title="World War II" href="/wiki/World_War_II">World War II</A> and reconstruction in the <A title=1950s href="/wiki/1950s">fifties</A> widened many streets, the city is currently plagued with traffic problems. Public transportation in Warsaw is as efficient as it is ubiquitous, serving the city with buses, tramways, and a recently opened metro.</P>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Statue of Adam Mickiewicz" href="/wiki/Image:4_Warszawa_44.jpg"><IMG height=200 alt="Statue of Adam Mickiewicz" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/4_Warszawa_44.jpg/300px-4_Warszawa_44.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:4_Warszawa_44.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:4_Warszawa_44.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Statue of <A title="Adam Mickiewicz" href="/wiki/Adam_Mickiewicz">Adam Mickiewicz</A></DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Ujazdowski Castle" href="/wiki/Image:4_Warszawa-Zamek_Ujazdowski_03.jpg"><IMG height=200 alt="Ujazdowski Castle" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/4_Warszawa-Zamek_Ujazdowski_03.jpg/300px-4_Warszawa-Zamek_Ujazdowski_03.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:4_Warszawa-Zamek_Ujazdowski_03.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:4_Warszawa-Zamek_Ujazdowski_03.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Ujazdowski Castle</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Wilanów Palace" href="/wiki/Image:Wilanow_palace.jpg"><IMG height=240 alt="Wilanów Palace" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1e/Wilanow_palace.jpg/300px-Wilanow_palace.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Wilanow_palace.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Wilanow_palace.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Wilanów Palace</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Krasiński Palace" href="/wiki/Image:Krasinskich_5.jpg"><IMG height=172 alt="Krasiński Palace" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Krasinskich_5.jpg/300px-Krasinskich_5.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Krasinskich_5.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Krasinskich_5.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Krasiński Palace</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=13">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Roads_and_highways name=Roads_and_highways></A></P>
<H3>Roads and highways</H3>
<P>Warsaw lacks a good circular road system and most of the East-West traffic goes directly through the city center. Currently two circular roads are under construction. The first (called OEW, or <I>Obwodnica Etapowa Warszawy</I>) is to lead the traffic approximately 10 kilometres from the city center through the city streets and two newly-built bridges (<A class="external autonumber" title=http://www.zdm.waw.pl/obwodnica/obwodnica.jpg href="http://www.zdm.waw.pl/obwodnica/obwodnica.jpg">[1]</A>). The other is to become a part of both the A-2 (<A title=Berlin href="/wiki/Berlin">Berlin</A>-<A title=Moscow href="/wiki/Moscow">Moscow</A>) <A title=Motorway href="/wiki/Motorway">motorway</A> and the S-7 (<A title=Gdańsk href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk">Gdańsk</A>–<A title=Kraków href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w">Kraków</A>) express road and run through a tunnel under the southern area of <A title=Ursynów href="/wiki/Ursyn%C3%B3w">Ursynów</A>. It is to become available between <A title=2008 href="/wiki/2008">2008</A> and <A title=2010 href="/wiki/2010">2010</A>.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=14">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Airports name=Airports></A></P>
<H3>Airports</H3>
<P>Warsaw has one international Airport, <A title="Warsaw Frederic Chopin Airport" href="/wiki/Warsaw_Frederic_Chopin_Airport">Warsaw Frederic Chopin Airport</A>, located just 10 km away from the city center. With over 60 international and domestic flights a day and with over 7,070,000 passengers in 2005 it is by far the biggest airport in Poland. Immediately adjacent to the main Frederic Chopin Airport terminal complex is the Etiuda terminal which serves both domestic routes and the international routes flown by low-cost carriers.</P>
<P>There are also plans to build a second international airport, mostly for service to other <A title="European Union" href="/wiki/European_Union">European Union</A> countries. It is to be located either just outside the city limits, at a former military airfield, or in a suburb to the north or west.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=15">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Mass_transit name=Mass_transit></A></P>
<H3>Mass transit</H3>
<P>The public transportation system in Warsaw consists of three branches (<A title=Bus href="/wiki/Bus">buses</A>, <A title=Streetcars href="/wiki/Streetcars">streetcars</A> and <A title=Metro href="/wiki/Metro">metro</A>) united in the <A class="external text" title=http://www.ztm.waw.pl/index.php href="http://www.ztm.waw.pl/index.php">ZTM</A> (<I>Zarząd Transportu Miejskiego</I> or the City Transportation Office). Additional lines are operated by private companies and the state-owned railways.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=16">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Buses name=Buses></A></P>
<H5>Buses</H5>
<P>Bus service covers the entire city, with 176 routes totalling 2,603 kilometres in length, and with 1,659 vehicles in service. The central bus stop is located next to Warszawa Centralna railway station and the Centrum Metro station. Between midnight and 5 am the city is served by 14 night lines. The first digit of the line's number indicates its type:</P>
<UL>
<LI>1** - normal line (operates all day, seven days a week, stops at every bus stop on the route)
<LI>2** - special line (only on special occasions, e.g. the cemetery lines on <A title="November 1" href="/wiki/November_1">November 1</A>, or as a replacement for a metro or streetcar line that is temporarily out of order)
<LI>3** - period line - normal (operates only at selected hours and on certain days, usually during peak hours, stops at every stop on the route)
<LI>4** - period line - fast (operates only at selected hours and on certain days, usually during peak hours, stops only at selected stops)
<LI>5** - fast line (operates all day, seven days a week, stops only at selected stops)
<LI>6** - night line (operates at night only, all stops are on-demand)
<LI>7** - suburb line (operates all day, seven days a week, goes outside the borders of Warsaw)
<LI>8** - suburb period line (operates only at selected hours and on certain days, usually during peak hours, goes outside the borders of Warsaw)
<LI>E-* - express line (stops only at major stops) </LI></UL>
<P><BR style="CLEAR: right"></P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=17">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Streetcars name=Streetcars></A></P>
<H4>Streetcars</H4>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Sapieha Palace" href="/wiki/Image:SapiehaPalace.jpg"><IMG height=211 alt="Sapieha Palace" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/SapiehaPalace.jpg/300px-SapiehaPalace.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:SapiehaPalace.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:SapiehaPalace.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Sapieha Palace</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<P>The first <A title=Streetcar href="/wiki/Streetcar">streetcar</A> line in Warsaw was opened on <A title="December 11" href="/wiki/December_11">11 December</A> <A title=1866 href="/wiki/1866">1866</A>. On <A title="March 26" href="/wiki/March_26">26 March</A> <A title=1908 href="/wiki/1908">1908</A>, all the lines, previously horse-powered, were electrified. In the interbellum the tramway was nationalized and the net was extended significantly. After the <A title="Polish September Campaign" href="/wiki/Polish_September_Campaign">Defence War of 1939</A> the service was halted for approximately three months due to war losses. Heavy aerial bombardment during the siege of Warsaw and requisition of all modern cars by the new German authorities postponed the reintroduction of service. However, by <A title=1940 href="/wiki/1940">1940</A> the trams were back on track. In <A title=1941 href="/wiki/1941">1941</A> the present colors of the cars were introduced (yellow and red, in accordance with the <A title="Flag of Warsaw" href="/wiki/Flag_of_Warsaw">Flag of Warsaw</A> colors. This was done to demoralize the Poles in the city by attempting to wipe out all traces of the white and red colors of Poland. Up until this point, the trams were painted either in a white and red mixture, or entirely red).</P>
<P>Following the <A title="Warsaw Uprising" href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising">Warsaw Uprising</A> the tram net was consistently destroyed by the Germans until the liberation of the ruins in January <A title=1945 href="/wiki/1945">1945</A>. The streets were filled with rubble, the tram stations destroyed and the cars either burnt or transported to Germany. However, the first streetcar line was opened again for the public on <A title="June 20" href="/wiki/June_20">20 June</A> <A title=1945 href="/wiki/1945">1945</A>.</P>
<P>Following the <A title="Second World War" href="/wiki/Second_World_War">Second World War</A> the tram net in Warsaw was in fast development. The track net reached all the principal parts of the city. However, in the <A title=1960s href="/wiki/1960s">sixties</A> the official policy of both Polish and <A title="Soviet Union" href="/wiki/Soviet_Union">Soviet</A> authorities promoted usage of Soviet oil and exportation of Polish coal. The availability of coal on the home market was decreased and the tramway net was shortened while more buses were bought. Until <A title=1989 href="/wiki/1989">1989</A> only 28 lines were preserved.</P>
<P>Currently the <I>Tramwaje Warszawskie</I> company runs 863 cars on almost 470 kilometres of track. Twenty-nine lines run across the city with additional lines opened on special occasions (such as public holidays or <A title="November 1" href="/wiki/November_1">All-Saints Day</A>).</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=18">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Trolleybuses name=Trolleybuses></A></P>
<H4>Trolleybuses</H4>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Ostrogski Palace" href="/wiki/Image:ZamekOstrogski.jpg"><IMG height=243 alt="Ostrogski Palace" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/ZamekOstrogski.jpg/300px-ZamekOstrogski.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:ZamekOstrogski.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:ZamekOstrogski.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Ostrogski Palace</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Jabłoński Palace" href="/wiki/Image:Teatralny_1862.jpg"><IMG height=140 alt="Jabłoński Palace" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Teatralny_1862.jpg/300px-Teatralny_1862.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Teatralny_1862.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Teatralny_1862.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Jabłoński Palace</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Czapski Palace" href="/wiki/Image:Krakowskie_5_03.jpg"><IMG height=178 alt="Czapski Palace" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Krakowskie_5_03.jpg/300px-Krakowskie_5_03.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Krakowskie_5_03.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Krakowskie_5_03.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Czapski Palace</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<P>After <A title="World War II" href="/wiki/World_War_II">World War II</A> most of the communication network in Warsaw was destroyed. The streets were filled with rubble, and the streetcar infrastructure was either transported to Germany by the <A title=Wehrmacht href="/wiki/Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</A> or destroyed.</P>
<P>However, the city entered the path of quick reconstruction and was in need of a transport network both cheap and efficient. In <A title=1946 href="/wiki/1946">1946</A> several dozens of <A title=Trolleybus href="/wiki/Trolleybus">trolleybuses</A> were brought in from the <A title="Soviet Union" href="/wiki/Soviet_Union">Soviet Union</A> and first two lines were soon opened. The trolleybuses were using ex-tramway lines and the lines ran from <A title="Union of Lublin" href="/wiki/Union_of_Lublin">Union of Lublin</A> square (<I>Plac Unii Lubelskiej</I>) to Warszawa Gdańska train station, and from Łazienkowska depot to the city center (Piękna street area).</P>
<P>In March <A title=1946 href="/wiki/1946">1946</A> a second line was opened (<I>Plac Saski</I>–<I>Bonifraterska</I>), but was closed and replaced by streetcars in December. However, the reconstruction of the tramway was halted, mostly for political reasons, and until <A title=1955 href="/wiki/1955">1955</A> 5 new trolleybus lines were opened, covering most of the city center.</P>
<P>See: <A class="external text" title=http://www.przegubowiec.com/t-bus/tbus73hist.gif href="http://www.przegubowiec.com/t-bus/tbus73hist.gif">trolleybus network map of this period</A></P>
<P><A title=1967 href="/wiki/1967">1967</A> started a period of fast decline in both the number of trolleybuses and the trolleybus lines in Warsaw. <A title=PZPR href="/wiki/PZPR">PZPR</A> policies under <A title="Edward Gierek" href="/wiki/Edward_Gierek">Edward Gierek</A> assumed that as much Polish coal as possible be exported while the oil be imported at very low prices from the <A title=USSR href="/wiki/USSR">USSR</A>. It was decided that production of electricity should be lowered in order to spare resources and by <A title="July 7" href="/wiki/July_7">7 July</A> <A title=1973 href="/wiki/1973">1973</A> all trolleybus lines in Warsaw were closed.</P>
<P>The last period of Warsaw trolleybus transportation started in <A title=1977 href="/wiki/1977">1977</A>, when it was decided that the existing cars could be used as a means of mass transit between Warsaw and the southern suburb of <A title=Piaseczno href="/wiki/Piaseczno">Piaseczno</A>. An additional line was planned through <A title=Wilanów href="/wiki/Wilan%C3%B3w">Wilanów</A> (now part of the city), <A class=new title=Powsin href="/w/index.php?title=Powsin&action=edit">Powsin</A> and <A class=new title=Konstancin-Jeziorna href="/w/index.php?title=Konstancin-Jeziorna&action=edit">Konstancin-Jeziorna</A>. However, economic crisis made construction of the latter line impossible, and only the <A title=Piaseczno href="/wiki/Piaseczno">Piaseczno</A> line was opened on <A title="July 1" href="/wiki/July_1">1 July</A> <A title=1983 href="/wiki/1983">1983</A>.</P>
<P>After the system transformation of <A title=1989 href="/wiki/1989">1989</A> it became apparent that the trolleybuses were in dire need of replacement (those used were built in early <A title=1950s href="/wiki/1950s">1950s</A>), and that the maintenance costs of running a single line were very high. On <A title="September 1" href="/wiki/September_1">1 September</A> <A title=1995 href="/wiki/1995">1995</A> the Warsaw City Council decided that all services on the 51 and 651 lines be halted. In July <A title=2000 href="/wiki/2000">2000</A> the trolleybus depot in Piaseczno was closed and the remaining cars sold to <A title=Minsk href="/wiki/Minsk">Minsk</A>, <A title=Lublin href="/wiki/Lublin">Lublin</A> (where most of them languish in a field behind the main area of a trolleybus depot awaiting refurbishment and return to service; a lack of funds prevents this from going ahead) and to various museums.</P>
<P>See: <A class="external text" title=http://www.przegubowiec.com/t-bus/tbtr83.htm href="http://www.przegubowiec.com/t-bus/tbtr83.htm">trolleybus line map of this period</A></P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=19">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Metro name=Metro></A></P>
<H4>Metro</H4>
<P><I>For detailed info on the Warsaw <A title="Underground railway" href="/wiki/Underground_railway">underground railway</A> see: <A title="Warsaw Metro" href="/wiki/Warsaw_Metro">Warsaw Metro</A>.</I></P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=20">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Railway name=Railway></A></P>
<H3>Railway</H3>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="St. Anna Church" href="/wiki/Image:4_Warszawa_39.jpg"><IMG height=200 alt="St. Anna Church" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/4_Warszawa_39.jpg/300px-4_Warszawa_39.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:4_Warszawa_39.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:4_Warszawa_39.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>St. Anna Church</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<P>The first railroad reached Warsaw in <A title=1848 href="/wiki/1848">1848</A> (the Warsaw-<A title=Vienna href="/wiki/Vienna">Vienna</A> line). Nowadays Warsaw is one of the main railway nodes and exchange points in Poland. Cheap and fairly efficient, the PKP (<I>Polskie Koleje Państwowe</I>, or Polish State-owned Railways) are one of the principal means of transport in Poland.</P>
<P>The main train station is <B>Warszawa Centralna</B>. Both the domestic and the international connections run from there to almost every major city in Poland and Europe. There are also 5 additional major train stations and a number of smaller stations for suburban lines.</P>
<P>The railway crosses under the city through a tunnel (<I>tunel średnicowy</I>). It is approximately 2.2 km long and runs directly under the city center. It is part of an east-west line connecting the <I>Warszawa Zachodnia</I>, <I>Warszawa Centralna</I> and <I>Warszawa Wschodnia</I> train stations through the tunnel and a railway bridge over the <A title="Vistula River" href="/wiki/Vistula_River">Vistula River</A>. There are plans to convert this line into part of the <A title=Metro href="/wiki/Metro">metro</A>.</P>
<P>The principal train stations are:</P>
<UL>
<LI>Warszawa Centralna
<LI>Warszawa Gdańska
<LI>Warszawa Wileńska
<LI>Warszawa Zachodnia
<LI>Warszawa Wschodnia </LI></UL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=21">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Sports name=Sports></A></P>
<H2>Sports</H2>
<DL>
<DD>
<DL>
<DD><I><SMALL>Main article: <A title="Sports in Warsaw" href="/wiki/Sports_in_Warsaw">Sports in Warsaw</A></SMALL></I> </DD></DL></DD></DL>
<DIV class=floatleft><SPAN><A class=image title="Polonia Warszawa" href="/wiki/Image:Polonia_Warszawa.gif"><IMG height=69 alt="Polonia Warszawa" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f7/Polonia_Warszawa.gif/70px-Polonia_Warszawa.gif" width=70 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Polonia_Warszawa.gif></A></SPAN></DIV>
<DIV class=floatleft><SPAN><A class=image title="Legia Warszawa" href="/wiki/Image:Legia_Warszawa.gif"><IMG height=70 alt="Legia Warszawa" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Legia_Warszawa.gif" width=70 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Legia_Warszawa.gif></A></SPAN></DIV>
<UL>
<LI><A title="Polonia Warszawa" href="/wiki/Polonia_Warszawa">Polonia Warszawa</A> - men's <A title="Football in Poland" href="/wiki/Football_in_Poland">football</A> team (est. <A title=1911 href="/wiki/1911">1911</A>), (Polish Champion: <A title=1948 href="/wiki/1948">1948</A>, <A title=2000 href="/wiki/2000">2000</A>; <A title="Polish Cup" href="/wiki/Polish_Cup">Polish Cup</A> winner: <A title=1952 href="/wiki/1952">1952</A>, <A title=2001 href="/wiki/2001">2001</A>; <A title="Polish SuperCup" href="/wiki/Polish_SuperCup">Polish SuperCup</A> winner: <A title=2000 href="/wiki/2000">2000</A>; 1st league in 2005/2006 season)
<LI><A title="Legia Warszawa" href="/wiki/Legia_Warszawa">Legia Warszawa</A> - men's <A title="Football in Poland" href="/wiki/Football_in_Poland">football</A> team (est. <A title=1916 href="/wiki/1916">1916</A>), (Polish Champion: <A title=1955 href="/wiki/1955">1955</A>, <A title=1956 href="/wiki/1956">1956</A>, <A title=1969 href="/wiki/1969">1969</A>, <A title=1970 href="/wiki/1970">1970</A>, <A title=1994 href="/wiki/1994">1994</A>, <A title=1995 href="/wiki/1995">1995</A>, <A title=2002 href="/wiki/2002">2002</A>; <A title="Polish Cup" href="/wiki/Polish_Cup">Polish Cup</A> winner: <A title=1955 href="/wiki/1955">1955</A>, <A title=1956 href="/wiki/1956">1956</A>, <A title=1964 href="/wiki/1964">1964</A>, <A title=1966 href="/wiki/1966">1966</A>, <A title=1973 href="/wiki/1973">1973</A>, <A title=1980 href="/wiki/1980">1980</A>, <A title=1981 href="/wiki/1981">1981</A>, <A title=1989 href="/wiki/1989">1989</A>, <A title=1990 href="/wiki/1990">1990</A>, <A title=1995 href="/wiki/1995">1995</A>, <A title=1995 href="/wiki/1995">1995</A>, <A title=1997 href="/wiki/1997">1997</A>; <A title="Polish SuperCup" href="/wiki/Polish_SuperCup">Polish SuperCup</A> winner: <A title=1989 href="/wiki/1989">1989</A>, <A title=1994 href="/wiki/1994">1994</A>, <A title=1997 href="/wiki/1997">1997</A>; 1st league in 2005/2006 season) </LI></UL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=22">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Culture name=Culture></A></P>
<H2>Culture</H2>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Grand Theater" href="/wiki/Image:Warszawa_Teatr_Wielki.jpg"><IMG height=128 alt="Grand Theater" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Warszawa_Teatr_Wielki.jpg/300px-Warszawa_Teatr_Wielki.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Warszawa_Teatr_Wielki.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Warszawa_Teatr_Wielki.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Grand Theater</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Old Philharmonic Hall" href="/wiki/Image:WarsawFilharmonia.jpg"><IMG height=199 alt="Old Philharmonic Hall" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/WarsawFilharmonia.jpg/300px-WarsawFilharmonia.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:WarsawFilharmonia.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:WarsawFilharmonia.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Old Philharmonic Hall</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Zachęta Art Gallery" href="/wiki/Image:Zacheta.jpg"><IMG height=176 alt="Zachęta Art Gallery" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Zacheta.jpg/300px-Zacheta.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Zacheta.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Zacheta.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV><A title=Zachęta href="/wiki/Zach%C4%99ta">Zachęta</A> Art Gallery</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=23">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Theatre name=Theatre></A></P>
<H3>Theatre</H3>
<P>Warsaw is home to over 30 major theatres that are spread throughout the city, including the <A title="Teatr Narodowy" href="/wiki/Teatr_Narodowy">National Theatre</A> (founded in <A title=1765 href="/wiki/1765">1765</A>) and the <A class=new title="Teatr Wielki" href="/w/index.php?title=Teatr_Wielki&action=edit">Grand Theatre in Warsaw</A> (<A class="external autonumber" title=http://www.teatrwielki.pl/index.php?nlang=en href="http://www.teatrwielki.pl/index.php?nlang=en">[2]</A>) (established <A title=1778 href="/wiki/1778">1778</A>).</P>
<P>Warsaw also attracts many young and off-stream directors and <A title=Performance href="/wiki/Performance">performers</A> who add to the city's theatre culture. Their productions may be viewed mostly in smaller theatres and <I>Houses of Culture</I> (<I>Dom Kultury</I>), mostly outside <I><A title=Warszawa-Śródmieście href="/wiki/Warszawa-%C5%9Ar%C3%B3dmie%C5%9Bcie">Śródmieście</A></I> (downtown Warsaw). One of the most notable stages in Poland is <I><A class=new title="TR Warszawa" href="/w/index.php?title=TR_Warszawa&action=edit">TR Warszawa</A></I> (formerly <I>Teatr Rozmaitości</I>).</P>
<P>Warsaw hosts the <A class=new title="International Theatrical Meetings" href="/w/index.php?title=International_Theatrical_Meetings&action=edit">International Theatrical Meetings</A>.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=24">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Music name=Music></A></P>
<H3>Music</H3>
<P>Thanks to numerous musical venues, including the <A class=new title="National Opera" href="/w/index.php?title=National_Opera&action=edit">National Opera</A>, the <A class=new title="Chamber Opera" href="/w/index.php?title=Chamber_Opera&action=edit">Chamber Opera</A>, the <A class=new title="National Philharmonic Hall" href="/w/index.php?title=National_Philharmonic_Hall&action=edit">National Philharmonic Hall</A> and the <A title="Teatr Narodowy" href="/wiki/Teatr_Narodowy">National Theatre</A>, as well as the music theatres Roma and Buffo and the Congress Hall in the <A title="Palace of Culture and Science" href="/wiki/Palace_of_Culture_and_Science">Palace of Culture and Science</A>, Warsaw hosts many renown events and festivals. Among the seasonal events worth particular attention are: the <A title="International Frederick Chopin Piano Competition" href="/wiki/International_Frederick_Chopin_Piano_Competition">International Frederick Chopin Piano Competition</A>, the International Contemporary Music Festival <A title="Warsaw Autumn" href="/wiki/Warsaw_Autumn">Warsaw Autumn</A>, the <A class=new title="Jazz Jamboree" href="/w/index.php?title=Jazz_Jamboree&action=edit">Jazz Jamboree</A>, <A class=new title="Warsaw Summer Jazz Days" href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw_Summer_Jazz_Days&action=edit">Warsaw Summer Jazz Days</A>, the <A class=new title="International Stanisław Moniuszko Vocal Competition" href="/w/index.php?title=International_Stanis%C5%82aw_Moniuszko_Vocal_Competition&action=edit">International Stanisław Moniuszko Vocal Competition</A>, the <A class=new title="Mozart Festival" href="/w/index.php?title=Mozart_Festival&action=edit">Mozart Festival</A>, and the <A class=new title="Festival of Old Music" href="/w/index.php?title=Festival_of_Old_Music&action=edit">Festival of Old Music</A>.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=25">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Museums_and_art_galleries name=Museums_and_art_galleries></A></P>
<H3>Museums and art galleries</H3>
<P>There are many museums and art galleries in Warsaw, most notable are the <A class=new title="National Museum in Warsaw" href="/w/index.php?title=National_Museum_in_Warsaw&action=edit">Muzeum Narodowe</A>, <A title=Zachęta href="/wiki/Zach%C4%99ta">Zachęta Art Gallery</A>, <A class=new title="Center for Contemporary Art in Warsaw" href="/w/index.php?title=Center_for_Contemporary_Art_in_Warsaw&action=edit">Center for Contemporary Art</A>, <A class=new title="Museum of the Polish Army" href="/w/index.php?title=Museum_of_the_Polish_Army&action=edit">Museum of the Polish Army</A>. The biggest of them, the <A class=new title="National Museum in Warsaw" href="/w/index.php?title=National_Museum_in_Warsaw&action=edit">National Museum</A> has numerous divisions located in many parts of Warsaw, most notably in the <A title="Royal Castle in Warsaw" href="/wiki/Royal_Castle_in_Warsaw">Royal Castle</A> and the <A title="Wilanów Palace" href="/wiki/Wilan%C3%B3w_Palace">Wilanów Palace</A>.</P>
<P>Since 2004, a <A title="Warsaw Uprising Museum" href="/wiki/Warsaw_Uprising_Museum">Warsaw Uprising Museum</A> <A class="external autonumber" title=http://www.1944.pl href="http://www.1944.pl">[3]</A> has been open to the public.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=26">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Film name=Film></A></P>
<H3>Film</H3>
<DL>
<DD>
<DL>
<DD><SMALL><I>Main article: <A class=new title="Movies featuring Warsaw" href="/w/index.php?title=Movies_featuring_Warsaw&action=edit">movies featuring Warsaw</A></I></SMALL> </DD></DL></DD></DL>
<P>Since World War II Warsaw has been the second most important center of film production in Poland. As the capital of Poland it has also been featured in countless movies, both Polish and foreign. Movies such as <I><A class=new title=Kanał href="/w/index.php?title=Kana%C5%82&action=edit">Kanał</A></I> and <I><A title=Korczak href="/wiki/Korczak">Korczak</A></I> by <A title="Andrzej Wajda" href="/wiki/Andrzej_Wajda">Andrzej Wajda</A>, <I><A title="Heroism (film)" href="/wiki/Heroism_%28film%29">Eroica</A></I> by <A title="Andrzej Munk" href="/wiki/Andrzej_Munk">Andrzej Munk</A>, <I><A title="The Decalogue" href="/wiki/The_Decalogue">The Decalogue</A></I> by <A title="Krzysztof Kieślowski" href="/wiki/Krzysztof_Kie%C5%9Blowski">Krzysztof Kieślowski</A>, <I><A title=Miś href="/wiki/Mi%C5%9B">Miś</A></I> by <A title="Stanisław Bareja" href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Bareja">Stanisław Bareja</A> or <I><A title="The Pianist (memoir)" href="/wiki/The_Pianist_%28memoir%29">The Pianist</A></I> by <A title="Roman Polański" href="/wiki/Roman_Pola%C5%84ski">Roman Polański</A> used Warsaw either as the background, or as the protagonist.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=27">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Education name=Education></A></P>
<H2>Education</H2>
<DL>
<DD>
<DL>
<DD><SMALL><I>For a full list of Warsaw-based institutions of higher education see: <A title="Education in Warsaw" href="/wiki/Education_in_Warsaw">Education in Warsaw</A></I></SMALL> </DD></DL></DD></DL>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Main gate of Warsaw University." href="/wiki/Image:Warszawa_Uniwersytet.png"><IMG height=224 alt="Main gate of Warsaw University." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Warszawa_Uniwersytet.png/300px-Warszawa_Uniwersytet.png" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Warszawa_Uniwersytet.png></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Warszawa_Uniwersytet.png"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Main gate of <A title="Warsaw University" href="/wiki/Warsaw_University">Warsaw University</A>.</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<P>Warsaw is one of the most important education centers of Poland. It is home to four major <A title=University href="/wiki/University">universities</A> and over 62 smaller schools of higher education. The most important are:</P>
<UL>
<LI><A title="University of Warsaw" href="/wiki/University_of_Warsaw">University of Warsaw</A> (<I>Uniwersytet Warszawski</I>)
<LI><A title="Warsaw University of Technology" href="/wiki/Warsaw_University_of_Technology">Warsaw University of Technology</A> (<I>Politechnika Warszawska</I>)
<LI><A title="Warsaw School of Economics" href="/wiki/Warsaw_School_of_Economics">Warsaw School of Economics</A> (<I>Szkoła Główna Handlowa</I>)
<LI><A title="Warsaw Agricultural University" href="/wiki/Warsaw_Agricultural_University">Warsaw Agricultural University</A> (<I>Szkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego</I>)
<LI><A title="Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University in Warsaw" href="/wiki/Cardinal_Stefan_Wyszy%C5%84ski_University_in_Warsaw">Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University</A> (<I>Uniwersytet Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego</I>)
<LI><A title="Medical University of Warsaw" href="/wiki/Medical_University_of_Warsaw">Medical University of Warsaw</A> (<I>Akademia Medyczna w Warszawie</I>)
<LI><A class=new title="Military University of Technology" href="/w/index.php?title=Military_University_of_Technology&action=edit">Military University of Technology</A> (<I>Wojskowa Akademia Techniczna</I>)
<LI><A title="Academy of National Defence" href="/wiki/Academy_of_National_Defence">Academy of National Defence</A> (<I>Akademia Obrony Narodowej</I>)
<LI><A class=new title="Academy of Physical Education in Warsaw" href="/w/index.php?title=Academy_of_Physical_Education_in_Warsaw&action=edit">Academy of Physical Education in Warsaw</A> (<I>Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego w Warszawie</I>)
<LI><A class=new title="Fryderyk Chopin Academy of Music" href="/w/index.php?title=Fryderyk_Chopin_Academy_of_Music&action=edit">Fryderyk Chopin Academy of Music</A> (<I>Akademia Muzyczna im. Fryderyka Chopina</I>)
<LI><A class=new title="Academy of Theatre in Warsaw" href="/w/index.php?title=Academy_of_Theatre_in_Warsaw&action=edit">Theatre Academy</A> (<I>Akademia Teatralna im. Aleksandra Zelwerowicza</I>) </LI></UL>
<P><I>See also:</I> <A title="List of universities in Poland" href="/wiki/List_of_universities_in_Poland">List of universities in Poland</A></P>
<P>The overall number of students of all grades of education in Warsaw is almost 500,000 (29.2% of the city population; 2002). The number of university students is over 255,000.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=28">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Economy name=Economy></A></P>
<H2>Economy</H2>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Warsaw after dark" href="/wiki/Image:Wawka.jpg"><IMG height=208 alt="Warsaw after dark" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Wawka.jpg/300px-Wawka.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Wawka.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Wawka.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Warsaw after dark</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Modern buildings at the John Paul II Avenue" href="/wiki/Image:Wawka2.jpg"><IMG height=225 alt="Modern buildings at the John Paul II Avenue" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Wawka2.jpg/300px-Wawka2.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Wawka2.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Wawka2.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Modern buildings at the <A title="John Paul II" href="/wiki/John_Paul_II">John Paul II</A> Avenue</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Great Synagogue before 1939" href="/wiki/Image:Warsawsynagoga.jpg"><IMG height=224 alt="Great Synagogue before 1939" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Warsawsynagoga.jpg/300px-Warsawsynagoga.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Warsawsynagoga.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Warsawsynagoga.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Great Synagogue before 1939</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=29">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Business_and_commerce name=Business_and_commerce></A></P>
<H3>Business and commerce</H3>
<P>Warsaw, especially its downtown (<I><A title=Warszawa-Śródmieście href="/wiki/Warszawa-%C5%9Ar%C3%B3dmie%C5%9Bcie">Śródmieście</A></I>), is home not only to many national institutions and government agencies, but also to many domestic and international companies. In <A title=2003 href="/wiki/2003">2003</A>, 268,307 companies were registered in the city. Warsaw is seen as the heart of Poland by foreign investors, whose financial participation in the city's development was estimated in <A title=2002 href="/wiki/2002">2002</A> at over 650 million <A title=Euro href="/wiki/Euro">euro</A>. Warsaw produces more than 15% of Poland's national income.</P>
<P>At the same time the unemployment rate is one of the lowest in Poland, not exceeding 6.5%, according to the official figures.</P>
<P>The city itself collects 6,162,324 <A title=Złoty href="/wiki/Z%C5%82oty">złotys</A> in taxes and direct government grants.</P>
<P>It has been said that Warsaw, together with <A title=Frankfurt href="/wiki/Frankfurt">Frankfurt</A>, <A title=London href="/wiki/London">London</A> and <A title=Paris href="/wiki/Paris">Paris</A>, is one of the tallest cities in Europe. 11 tallest skyscrapers of Poland, 9 of which are office buildings, are located in Warsaw. The centrally located tallest structure, the <A title="Warsaw Palace of Culture and Science" href="/wiki/Warsaw_Palace_of_Culture_and_Science">Palace of Culture and Science</A>, is the 4th tallest building in the European Union.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=30">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Stock_Exchange name=Stock_Exchange></A></P>
<H3>Stock Exchange</H3>
<P>Although Warsaw was home to a stock exchange since <A title=1817 href="/wiki/1817">1817</A>, in <A title=1945 href="/wiki/1945">1945</A>, because of political changes after World War II, it couldn't be recreated. It only started operating again in April <A title=1991 href="/wiki/1991">1991</A>, after the reintroduction of the free-market economy and democracy. It is now the biggest stock exchange in Central and Eastern Europe, with more than 130 companies listed. The main indexes of its performance are <A title=WIG href="/wiki/WIG">WIG</A> and <A class=new title=WIG20 href="/w/index.php?title=WIG20&action=edit">WIG20</A>.</P>
<P>History likes funny twists — it's worth mentioning that from <A title=1991 href="/wiki/1991">1991</A> until <A title=2000 href="/wiki/2000">2000</A> the <A title="Warsaw Stock Exchange" href="/wiki/Warsaw_Stock_Exchange">Warsaw Stock Exchange</A> was situated in the building previously used as the headquarters of the <A title=PZPR href="/wiki/PZPR">Polish Communist Party</A> (<A title=PZPR href="/wiki/PZPR">PZPR</A>).</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=31">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Industry name=Industry></A></P>
<H3>Industry</H3>
<P>Following the destruction of the city in <A title="World War II" href="/wiki/World_War_II">World War II</A> and its reconstruction, the communist authorities decided that Warsaw be rebuilt as a major industrial center. Several hundred major factories were build in the city or just outside of it. Most notable were the <I>Huta Warszawa</I> Steel Works and two car factories.</P>
<P>However, as the communist economical system deteriorated, most of them lost any significance. In the years following <A title=1989 href="/wiki/1989">1989</A>, in the course of a peaceful transformation of both political and economical system in Poland, most of these went bankrupt. Nowadays, the <A class="external text" title=http://www.hutalw.com.pl/en/index.html href="http://www.hutalw.com.pl/en/index.html">Lucchini-Warszawa Steel Mill</A> (formerly <I>Huta Warszawa</I>) is the only major factory remaining.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=32">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Tourist_attractions name=Tourist_attractions></A></P>
<H2>Tourist attractions</H2>
<DIV class="thumb tleft">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 202px"><A class=internal title="Aleksander Church before 1939" href="/wiki/Image:AleksanderWarszawa.jpg"><IMG height=285 alt="Aleksander Church before 1939" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/AleksanderWarszawa.jpg/200px-AleksanderWarszawa.jpg" width=200 longDesc=/wiki/Image:AleksanderWarszawa.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:AleksanderWarszawa.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Aleksander Church before 1939</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DL>
<DD><I>Main article: <A title="Tourist attractions in Warsaw" href="/wiki/Tourist_attractions_in_Warsaw">Tourist attractions in Warsaw</A></I> </DD></DL>
<P>Although Warsaw is a reasonably new city, it has a lot of tourist attractions. Apart from the <A title=Starówka href="/wiki/Star%C3%B3wka">Old Town</A> quarter, carefully reconstructed after <A title="World War II" href="/wiki/World_War_II">World War II</A>, each of the borrough has something to offer. Among the most notable landmarks of the Old Town are the <A title="Royal Castle in Warsaw" href="/wiki/Royal_Castle_in_Warsaw">Royal Castle</A>, <A title="Kolumna Zygmunta" href="/wiki/Kolumna_Zygmunta">King Zygmunt's Column</A>, and the <A title=Barbican href="/wiki/Barbican">barbican</A>.</P>
<P>Further south is the so-called Royal Road, with lots of notable <A title=Classicism href="/wiki/Classicism">classicist</A> palaces, the <A title="Presidential Palace in Warsaw" href="/wiki/Presidential_Palace_in_Warsaw">Presidential Palace</A> and the <A title="Warsaw University" href="/wiki/Warsaw_University">Warsaw University</A> campus. Also the popular <A title="Nowy Świat Street" href="/wiki/Nowy_%C5%9Awiat_Street">Nowy Świat Street</A> is worth mentioning.</P>
<P>The oldest Warsaw's public park, the <A class=new title="Ogród Saski" href="/w/index.php?title=Ogr%C3%B3d_Saski&action=edit">Ogród Saski</A>, is located within 10 minutes distance of the old town. Another such oasis of silence and serenity is the <A title="Powązki Cemetery" href="/wiki/Pow%C4%85zki_Cemetery">Powązki Cemetery</A>, one of the oldest cemeteries in Europe, filled with hundreds of precious sculptured, some of them by the most renown artists of 19th and 20th centuries. Since it serves the religious communities of Warsaw, be it Catholics, Jews, Muslims or Protestants, it is often called a <A title=Necropolis href="/wiki/Necropolis">necropolis</A>. Nearby is the <A title="Okopowa Street Jewish Cemetery" href="/wiki/Okopowa_Street_Jewish_Cemetery">Okopowa Street Jewish Cemetery</A>, one of the largest Jewish cemeteries in Europe.</P>
<P>To the north of the city center the museum of the former <A title="Warsaw Ghetto" href="/wiki/Warsaw_Ghetto">Warsaw Ghetto</A> is located, which is also a popular locality often visited by foreign tourists. Also the borough of <A title=Żoliborz href="/wiki/%C5%BBoliborz">Żoliborz</A> is famous for its architecture from the 1920s and 1930s. Between Żoliborz and the <A title=Vistula href="/wiki/Vistula">Vistula</A> the <A title="Warsaw Citadel" href="/wiki/Warsaw_Citadel">Warsaw Citadel</A> is located, which is one of the priceless monuments of <A title="19th century" href="/wiki/19th_century">19th century</A> military architecture in Poland. Also the former royal residencec of king <A title="Jan III Sobieski" href="/wiki/Jan_III_Sobieski">Jan III Sobieski</A> in <A title=Wilanów href="/wiki/Wilan%C3%B3w">Wilanów</A> and <A title=Belweder href="/wiki/Belweder">Belweder</A> are notable for their <A title=Baroque href="/wiki/Baroque">baroque</A> architecture and beautiful parks.</P>
<P>However, Warsaw is perhaps the most famous for several buildings from modern history. Apart from the <A title="Warsaw Palace of Culture and Science" href="/wiki/Warsaw_Palace_of_Culture_and_Science">Palace of Culture and Science</A>, a <A title="Socialist Realism" href="/wiki/Socialist_Realism">Soc-realist</A> skyscrapper located exactly in the city center, the <A title="Stadion Dziesięciolecia" href="/wiki/Stadion_Dziesi%C4%99ciolecia">Stadion Dziesięciolecia</A> which is the biggest <A title=Market href="/wiki/Market">market</A> in Europe also attracts many tourists. For those who seek dramatic contrasts the borough of Central <A title=Praga href="/wiki/Praga">Praga</A> is often the best choice. Called by the Varsovians the <I>Bermuda Triangle</I> for high crime rate, it is a place where almost completely demolished houses stand right next to modern apartment buildings and shopping malls.</P>
<P>
</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=33">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Trivia name=Trivia></A></P>
<H2>Trivia</H2>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Branicki Palace" href="/wiki/Image:2_Palac_Branickich_02.jpg"><IMG height=188 alt="Branicki Palace" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/2_Palac_Branickich_02.jpg/300px-2_Palac_Branickich_02.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:2_Palac_Branickich_02.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:2_Palac_Branickich_02.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Branicki Palace</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Palace under the four winds" href="/wiki/Image:Czterywiatry.jpg"><IMG height=225 alt="Palace under the four winds" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Czterywiatry.jpg/300px-Czterywiatry.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Czterywiatry.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Czterywiatry.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Palace under the four winds</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class="infobox sisterproject">Find more information on <B>Warsaw</B> by searching one of Wikipedia's <A title="Wikipedia:Sister projects" href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Sister_projects">sister projects</A>:
<P><A class=image title=" " href="/wiki/Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png"><IMG height=27 alt=" " src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Wiktionary-logo-en.png/25px-Wiktionary-logo-en.png" width=25 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png></A> <A class=extiw title=wiktionary:Special:Search/Warsaw href="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Warsaw">Dictionary definitions</A> from Wiktionary
<A class=image title=" " href="/wiki/Image:Wikibooks-logo.svg"><IMG height=25 alt=" " src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/25px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" width=25 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Wikibooks-logo.svg></A> <A class=extiw title=wikibooks:Special:Search/Warsaw href="http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Warsaw">Textbooks</A> from Wikibooks
<A class=image title=" " href="/wiki/Image:Wikiquote-logo.svg"><IMG height=30 alt=" " src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/25px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" width=25 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Wikiquote-logo.svg></A> <A class=extiw title=wikiquote:Special:Search/Warsaw href="http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Warsaw">Quotations</A> from Wikiquote
<A class=image title=" " href="/wiki/Image:Wikisource-logo.jpg"><IMG height=28 alt=" " src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Wikisource-logo.jpg/25px-Wikisource-logo.jpg" width=25 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Wikisource-logo.jpg></A> <A class=extiw title=wikisource:Special:Search/Warsaw href="http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Warsaw">Source texts</A> from Wikisource
<A class=image title=" " href="/wiki/Image:Commons-logo.svg"><IMG height=34 alt=" " src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/25px-Commons-logo.svg.png" width=25 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Commons-logo.svg></A> <A class=extiw title=commons:Special:Search/Warsaw href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Search/Warsaw">Images and media</A> from Commons
<A class=image title=" " href="/wiki/Image:Wikinews-logo.png"><IMG height=13 alt=" " src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Wikinews-logo.png/25px-Wikinews-logo.png" width=25 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Wikinews-logo.png></A> <A class=extiw title=wikinews:Special:Search/Warsaw href="http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Warsaw">News stories</A> from Wikinews</P></DIV>
<UL>
<LI>One of <A title="David Bowie" href="/wiki/David_Bowie">David Bowie</A>’s songs released in the album <A title="Low (album)" href="/wiki/Low_%28album%29">Low</A> is called <A title="Warszawa (song)" href="/wiki/Warszawa_%28song%29">Warszawa</A>.
<LI>There is a <A title=Denmark href="/wiki/Denmark">Danish</A> <A title="Heavy metal music" href="/wiki/Heavy_metal_music">heavy metal</A> band called <A title="Red Warszawa" href="/wiki/Red_Warszawa">Red Warszawa</A>.
<LI>There are ten towns in the <A title=USA href="/wiki/USA">USA</A> called <A title="Warsaw (disambiguation)" href="/wiki/Warsaw_%28disambiguation%29">Warsaw</A>
<LI>The <A title="Punk rock" href="/wiki/Punk_rock">punk rock</A> band <A title="Joy Division" href="/wiki/Joy_Division">Joy Division</A> was previously named "Warsaw". </LI></UL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=34">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=See_also name=See_also></A></P>
<H2>See also</H2>
<UL>
<LI><A title="Battle of Warsaw" href="/wiki/Battle_of_Warsaw">Battle of Warsaw</A>
<LI><A title="Warsaw dialect" href="/wiki/Warsaw_dialect">Warsaw dialect</A>
<LI><A title="Stefan Starzyński" href="/wiki/Stefan_Starzy%C5%84ski">Stefan Starzyński</A>
<LI><A title="Warsaw concentration camp" href="/wiki/Warsaw_concentration_camp">Warsaw concentration camp</A>
<LI><A title="Warsaw Pact" href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact">Warsaw Pact</A>
<LI><A title="Warsaw Fire Brigade" href="/wiki/Warsaw_Fire_Brigade">Warsaw Fire Brigade</A>
<LI><A title="Warsaw Metro" href="/wiki/Warsaw_Metro">Warsaw Metro</A>
<LI><A title="History of Poland" href="/wiki/History_of_Poland">History of Poland</A>
<LI><A title="Royal coronations in Poland" href="/wiki/Royal_coronations_in_Poland">Royal coronations in St. John's Cathedral</A>
<LI><A title="Soviet military cemetery in Warsaw" href="/wiki/Soviet_military_cemetery_in_Warsaw">Soviet military cemetery in Warsaw</A>
<LI><A title="Dukes of Masovia" href="/wiki/Dukes_of_Masovia">Dukes of Masovia</A>
<LI><A title="List of films featuring Warsaw" href="/wiki/List_of_films_featuring_Warsaw">List of films featuring Warsaw</A>
<LI><A title="Members of Polish Parliament elected from Warsaw constituency" href="/wiki/Members_of_Polish_Parliament_elected_from_Warsaw_constituency">Members of Polish Parliament elected from Warsaw constituency</A> </LI></UL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=Warsaw href="/w/index.php?title=Warsaw&action=edit&section=35">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=External_links name=External_links></A></P>
<H2>External links</H2>
<UL>
<LI><A class=extiw title=wikitravel:Warsaw href="http://wikitravel.org/en/Warsaw">Travel guide to Warsaw</A> from <A class=extiw title=wikitravel:Wikitravel:About href="http://wikitravel.org/en/Wikitravel:About">Wikitravel</A>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.e-warsaw.pl/index.php href="http://www.e-warsaw.pl/index.php">Official web page of Warsaw</A>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.warsawtour.pl/index.php href="http://www.warsawtour.pl/index.php">Official tourist web page of Warsaw</A>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://um.warszawa.pl/mapa/ href="http://um.warszawa.pl/mapa/">Interactive city map</A>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.samper.pl/obrazki/panorama0.jpg href="http://www.samper.pl/obrazki/panorama0.jpg">Panorama of the city center</A>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.warsaw-life.com/ href="http://www.warsaw-life.com/">Warsaw Life Travel Guide</A>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://skyscraperpage.com/diagrams/?c993 href="http://skyscraperpage.com/diagrams/?c993">Skyscrapers Diagram of Warsaw</A>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.sky.s64.pl href="http://www.sky.s64.pl">Modern architecture in Warsaw</A>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.pkin.pl/index.php?lang=2 href="http://www.pkin.pl/index.php?lang=2">Socrealistic architecture in Warsaw</A>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.1944.pl href="http://www.1944.pl">Warsaw Uprising 1944</A>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.zamek-krolewski.art.pl href="http://www.zamek-krolewski.art.pl">Royal Castle</A>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.wilanow-palac.art.pl/ href="http://www.wilanow-palac.art.pl/">Wilanów Palace</A> </LI></UL>
<P><BR style="CLEAR: right"></P>
<P>
</P>
<TABLE class=toccolours style="TEXT-ALIGN: center">
<TBODY>
<TR>
<TD>
<TABLE>
<TBODY>
<TR style="BACKGROUND: lightsteelblue">
<TD><A class=image title="Flag of Poland" href="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Poland.svg"><IMG height=38 alt="Flag of Poland" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/60px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png" width=60 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Poland.svg></A></TD>
<TD width="100%"><B><A title=Poland href="/wiki/Poland">Republic of Poland</A></B></TD>
<TD><A class=image title="Flag of Poland" href="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Poland.svg"><IMG height=38 alt="Flag of Poland" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/60px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png" width=60 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Poland.svg></A></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD>
<P><B><A title="Voivodships of Poland" href="/wiki/Voivodships_of_Poland">Voivodships</A></B>: <A title="Greater Poland Voivodship" href="/wiki/Greater_Poland_Voivodship">Greater Poland</A> | <A title="Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodship" href="/wiki/Kuyavian-Pomeranian_Voivodship">Kuyavia-Pomerania</A> | <A title="Lesser Poland Voivodship" href="/wiki/Lesser_Poland_Voivodship">Lesser Poland</A> | <A title="Lower Silesian Voivodship" href="/wiki/Lower_Silesian_Voivodship">Lower Silesia</A> | <A title="Lublin Voivodship" href="/wiki/Lublin_Voivodship">Lublin</A> | <A title="Lubusz Voivodship" href="/wiki/Lubusz_Voivodship">Lubusz</A> | <A title="Łódź Voivodship" href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA_Voivodship">Łódź</A> | <A title="Masovian Voivodship" href="/wiki/Masovian_Voivodship">Masovia</A> | <A title="Opole Voivodship" href="/wiki/Opole_Voivodship">Opole</A> | <A title="Podlasie Voivodship" href="/wiki/Podlasie_Voivodship">Podlachia</A> | <A title="Pomeranian Voivodship" href="/wiki/Pomeranian_Voivodship">Pomerania</A> | <A title="Silesian Voivodship" href="/wiki/Silesian_Voivodship">Silesia</A> | <A title="Subcarpathian Voivodship" href="/wiki/Subcarpathian_Voivodship">Subcarpathia</A> | <A title="Świętokrzyskie Voivodship" href="/wiki/%C5%9Awi%C4%99tokrzyskie_Voivodship">Świętokrzyskie</A> | <A title=Warmia-Masuria href="/wiki/Warmia-Masuria">Warmia and Masuria</A> | <A title="West Pomeranian Voivodship" href="/wiki/West_Pomeranian_Voivodship">West Pomerania</A></P>
<P><B><A title="List of cities in Poland" href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Poland">Principal cities</A></B>: <STRONG>Warsaw</STRONG> | <A title=Łódź href="/wiki/%C5%81%C3%B3d%C5%BA">Łódź</A> | <A title=Kraków href="/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w">Kraków</A> | <A title=Wrocław href="/wiki/Wroc%C5%82aw">Wrocław</A> | <A title=Poznań href="/wiki/Pozna%C5%84">Poznań</A> | <A title=Gdańsk href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk">Gdańsk</A> | <A title=Szczecin href="/wiki/Szczecin">Szczecin</A> | <A title=Bydgoszcz href="/wiki/Bydgoszcz">Bydgoszcz</A> | <A title=Lublin href="/wiki/Lublin">Lublin</A> | <A title=Katowice href="/wiki/Katowice">Katowice</A> | <A title=Białystok href="/wiki/Bia%C5%82ystok">Białystok</A> | <A title=Częstochowa href="/wiki/Cz%C4%99stochowa">Częstochowa</A> | <A title=Gdynia href="/wiki/Gdynia">Gdynia</A> | <A title="Gorzów Wielkopolski" href="/wiki/Gorz%C3%B3w_Wielkopolski">Gorzów Wielkopolski</A> | <A title=Toruń href="/wiki/Toru%C5%84">Toruń</A> | <A title=Radom href="/wiki/Radom">Radom</A> | <A title=Kielce href="/wiki/Kielce">Kielce</A> | <A title=Rzeszów href="/wiki/Rzesz%C3%B3w">Rzeszów</A> | <A title=Olsztyn href="/wiki/Olsztyn">Olsztyn</A></P></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:32908-0!1!0!0!!en!2 and timestamp 20060213202650 -->
<DIV class=printfooter>Retrieved from "<A href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw</A>"</DIV>
<DIV id=catlinks>
<P class=catlinks><A title=Special:Categories href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Categories&article=Warsaw">Categories</A>: <SPAN dir=ltr><A title=Category:Warsaw href="/wiki/Category:Warsaw">Warsaw</A></SPAN> | <SPAN dir=ltr><A title="Category:Recipients of Virtuti Militari" href="/wiki/Category:Recipients_of_Virtuti_Militari">Recipients of Virtuti Militari</A></SPAN> | <SPAN dir=ltr><A title="Category:World Heritage Sites in Poland" href="/wiki/Category:World_Heritage_Sites_in_Poland">World Heritage Sites in Poland</A></SPAN></P></DIV><!-- end content -->
<DIV class=visualClear></DIV><div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/16266475-113986432513280922?l=encyclopediageneral.blogspot.com'/></div>Murat Alperennoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-16266475.post-1139863781308513162006-02-13T12:48:00.001-08:002006-02-13T12:50:17.100-08:00Amiga 1000[EXTRACT]<H3 id=siteSub>From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</H3>
<DIV id=contentSub></DIV>
<DIV id=jump-to-nav>Jump to: <A href="#column-one">navigation</A>, <A href="#searchInput">search</A></DIV><!-- start content -->
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 182px"><A class=internal title="Amiga 1000 (1985)" href="/wiki/Image:Amiga_1000.jpg"><IMG height=199 alt="Amiga 1000 (1985)" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/26/Amiga_1000.jpg/180px-Amiga_1000.jpg" width=180 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Amiga_1000.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Amiga_1000.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Amiga 1000 (1985)</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<P>The <B>A1000</B>, or <A title="Commodore International" href="/wiki/Commodore_International">Commodore</A> <A title=Amiga href="/wiki/Amiga">Amiga</A> 1000, was Commodore's initial Amiga <A title=Multimedia href="/wiki/Multimedia">multimedia</A> <A title="Home computer" href="/wiki/Home_computer">home</A>/<A title="Personal computer" href="/wiki/Personal_computer">personal computer</A>, released in the summer of <A title=1985 href="/wiki/1985">1985</A> at an original retail price of US$1,295 without a monitor. A 13-inch analog <A title=RGB href="/wiki/RGB">RGB</A> monitor was available for around US$300. Before the follow-up <A title=A500 href="/wiki/A500">A500</A> and <A title=A2000 href="/wiki/A2000">A2000</A> models were released in 1987, the A1000 was usually just called the <B>Amiga</B>.</P>
<P>The A1000 had a number of characteristics that distinguished it from later Amigas: It was the only model to feature the short-lived Amiga "checkmark" logo on its case; the case was elevated slightly to give a storage area for the keyboard when not in use (a "keyboard garage"); and the inside of the case was engraved with the signatures of the Amiga designers, including <A title="Jay Miner" href="/wiki/Jay_Miner">Jay Miner</A> and the paw print of his dog Mitchy.</P>
<P>Many A1000 owners remained attached to their machines long after newer models rendered the units technically obsolete, and it attracted numerous aftermarket upgrades. Many CPU upgrades that plugged into the <A title="Motorola 68000" href="/wiki/Motorola_68000">Motorola 68000</A> socket functioned in the A1000. Additionally, a line of products called the <I>Rejuvinator</I> series allowed the use of newer chipsets in the A1000, and an <A title=Australia href="/wiki/Australia">Australian</A>-designed replacement A1000 motherboard called <I>The Phoenix</I> utilized the same chipset as the A3000 and added an A2000-compatible video slot and onboard <A title=SCSI href="/wiki/SCSI">SCSI</A>.</P>
<TABLE class=toc id=toc summary=Contents>
<TBODY>
<TR>
<TD>
<DIV id=toctitle>
<H2>Contents</H2> <SPAN class=toctoggle>[<A class=internal id=togglelink href="javascript:toggleToc()">hide</A>]</SPAN></DIV>
<UL>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Writable_Control_Store"><SPAN class=tocnumber>1</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Writable Control Store</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Technical_specifications"><SPAN class=tocnumber>2</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Technical specifications</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#The_two_versions_of_the_A1000"><SPAN class=tocnumber>3</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>The two versions of the A1000</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#External_links"><SPAN class=tocnumber>4</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>External links</SPAN></A> </LI></UL></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE>
<P>
<SCRIPT type=text/javascript>
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</SCRIPT>
</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Amiga 1000" href="/w/index.php?title=Amiga_1000&action=edit&section=1">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Writable_Control_Store name=Writable_Control_Store></A></P>
<H2>Writable Control Store</H2>
<P>Because <A title=AmigaOS href="/wiki/AmigaOS">AmigaOS</A> was rather <A title="Computer bug" href="/wiki/Computer_bug">buggy</A> at the time of the A1000's release, the OS was not placed in ROM. Instead, the A1000 included a <A title=Daughterboard href="/wiki/Daughterboard">daughterboard</A> with 256 KB of RAM, dubbed the "Writable Control Store" (WCS), into which the operating system was <A title=Booting href="/wiki/Booting">booted</A> from floppy disk (the disk containing the 256 KB image was called "Kickstart"). The WCS was write-protected after loading, and system resets did not require a reload of the WCS.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Amiga 1000" href="/w/index.php?title=Amiga_1000&action=edit&section=2">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Technical_specifications name=Technical_specifications></A></P>
<H2>Technical specifications</H2>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 182px"><A class=internal title="Jay Miner's signature from the top cover of a Commodore Amiga 1000 computer. The paw print is that of Mitch, Miner's dog." href="/wiki/Image:JayMiner_Mitch.jpg"><IMG height=132 alt="Jay Miner's signature from the top cover of a Commodore Amiga 1000 computer. The paw print is that of Mitch, Miner's dog." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/JayMiner_Mitch.jpg/180px-JayMiner_Mitch.jpg" width=180 longDesc=/wiki/Image:JayMiner_Mitch.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:JayMiner_Mitch.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Jay Miner's signature from the top cover of a Commodore Amiga 1000 computer. The paw print is that of Mitch, Miner's dog.</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<UL>
<LI><A title="Motorola 68000" href="/wiki/Motorola_68000">Motorola 68000</A> (32-bit <A title=CISC href="/wiki/CISC">CISC</A> microprocessor with 16 registers lacking <A title="Memory management unit" href="/wiki/Memory_management_unit">MMU</A> for memory protection and virtual memory).
<LI>Default operating system <A title=AmigaOS href="/wiki/AmigaOS">AmigaOS</A> 1.0/1.1/1.2 loaded from the <A title=Kickstart href="/wiki/Kickstart">Kickstart</A> <A title="Floppy disk" href="/wiki/Floppy_disk">floppy disk</A> at power-on (having 32-bit <A title="Pre-emptive multitasking" href="/wiki/Pre-emptive_multitasking">pre-emptive multitasking</A> <A title=Microkernel href="/wiki/Microkernel">microkernel</A>)
<LI>256 <A title=Kilobyte href="/wiki/Kilobyte">KB</A> of <A title="Chip RAM" href="/wiki/Chip_RAM">Chip RAM</A> by default, with an additional 256 KB provided by a dedicated cartridge (sound buffers, graphics buffers and software existed in same memory space)
<UL>
<LI>Practical upper limit of about 9 <A title=Megabyte href="/wiki/Megabyte">MB</A> of memory due to MC68000 limitations (24-bit external <A title="Address bus" href="/wiki/Address_bus">address bus</A>) </LI></UL>
<LI><A title="Original Amiga chipset" href="/wiki/Original_Amiga_chipset">OCS</A> chipset
<LI>50 <A title=Hertz href="/wiki/Hertz">Hz</A> <A title=PAL href="/wiki/PAL">PAL</A> and 60 Hz <A title=NTSC href="/wiki/NTSC">NTSC</A> <A title=Television href="/wiki/Television">TV</A> output by default versions available (PAL versions sold in Europe and Australia)
<LI>One expansion port for add-ons (memory, <A title=SCSI href="/wiki/SCSI">SCSI</A> adaptor, etc), electrically identical to the <A title="Amiga 500" href="/wiki/Amiga_500">Amiga 500</A> expansion port.
<UL>
<LI>Resources handled by <A title=AutoConfig href="/wiki/AutoConfig">AutoConfig</A> </LI></UL></LI></UL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Amiga 1000" href="/w/index.php?title=Amiga_1000&action=edit&section=3">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=The_two_versions_of_the_A1000 name=The_two_versions_of_the_A1000></A></P>
<H2>The two versions of the A1000</H2>
<P>There were two versions of the Amiga 1000. The first one was sold only in <A title=Canada href="/wiki/Canada">Canada</A> and the <A title="United States" href="/wiki/United_States">United States</A>, had a <A title=NTSC href="/wiki/NTSC">NTSC</A> display and lacked the EHB video mode which all other models of the Amiga had. Later versions of this version would have this video mode built in. The second one had a <A title=PAL href="/wiki/PAL">PAL</A> display, the enhanced video modes (EHB) and was built in <A title=Germany href="/wiki/Germany">Germany</A>.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Amiga 1000" href="/w/index.php?title=Amiga_1000&action=edit&section=4">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=External_links name=External_links></A></P>
<H2>External links</H2>
<UL>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?st=1&c=28 href="http://www.old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?st=1&c=28">The Commodore Amiga A1000 at OLD-COMPUTERS.COM</A> </LI></UL>
<P><BR style="CLEAR: both"></P>
<CENTER>
<TABLE class=toccolours style="MARGIN: 0px 2em">
<TBODY>
<TR>
<TD style="BACKGROUND: #ccccff" align=middle>
<DIV class=floatright><SPAN><A class=image title="" href="/wiki/Image:CBM_Logo.svg"><IMG height=20 alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/5c/CBM_Logo.svg/20px-CBM_Logo.svg.png" width=20 longDesc=/wiki/Image:CBM_Logo.svg></A></SPAN></DIV><B> <A title="Commodore International" href="/wiki/Commodore_International#Product_line">List of Commodore microcomputers</A></B></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD style="FONT-SIZE: 90%" align=middle>
<P><A title="MOS Technology 6502" href="/wiki/MOS_Technology_6502">MOS Technology 6502</A>-based (<A title=8-bit href="/wiki/8-bit">8-bit</A>): <A title=KIM-1 href="/wiki/KIM-1">MOS/CBM KIM-1</A> | <A title="Commodore PET" href="/wiki/Commodore_PET">PET/CBM</A> | <A title="Commodore CBM-II" href="/wiki/Commodore_CBM-II">CBM-II (aka B/P series)</A> | <A title="Commodore VIC-20" href="/wiki/Commodore_VIC-20">VIC-20/VC-20</A> | <A title="Commodore 64" href="/wiki/Commodore_64">C64</A> | <A title="Commodore SX-64" href="/wiki/Commodore_SX-64">SX-64</A> | <A title="Commodore 16" href="/wiki/Commodore_16">C16 & 116</A> | <A title="Commodore Plus/4" href="/wiki/Commodore_Plus/4">Plus/4</A> | <A title="Commodore 128" href="/wiki/Commodore_128">C128</A>
</P>
<P><A title="Motorola 68000" href="/wiki/Motorola_68000">M68K</A>-based (<A title=16-bit href="/wiki/16-bit">16</A>/<A title=32-bit href="/wiki/32-bit">32-bit</A>): <STRONG>Amiga 1000</STRONG> | <A title="Amiga 500" href="/wiki/Amiga_500">Amiga 500</A> | <A title="Amiga 2000" href="/wiki/Amiga_2000">Amiga 2000</A> | <A title="Amiga 500+" href="/wiki/Amiga_500%2B">Amiga 500+</A> | <A title="Amiga 2500" href="/wiki/Amiga_2500">Amiga 2500</A> | <A title="Amiga 3000" href="/wiki/Amiga_3000">Amiga 3000</A>, <A title="Amiga 3000UX" href="/wiki/Amiga_3000UX">UX</A>, <A title="Amiga 3000T" href="/wiki/Amiga_3000T">T</A> | <A title="Amiga 600" href="/wiki/Amiga_600">Amiga 600</A> | <A title="Amiga 1200" href="/wiki/Amiga_1200">Amiga 1200</A> | <A title="Amiga 4000" href="/wiki/Amiga_4000">Amiga 4000</A></P></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE></CENTER><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:3104-0!1!0!0!!en!2 and timestamp 20060213194457 -->
<DIV class=printfooter>Retrieved from "<A href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiga_1000">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiga_1000</A>"</DIV>
<DIV id=catlinks>
<P class=catlinks><A title=Special:Categories href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Categories&article=Amiga_1000">Category</A>: <SPAN dir=ltr><A title="Category:Commodore Amiga" href="/wiki/Category:Commodore_Amiga">Commodore Amiga</A></SPAN></P></DIV><!-- end content -->
<DIV class=visualClear></DIV><div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/16266475-113986378130851316?l=encyclopediageneral.blogspot.com'/></div>Murat Alperennoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-16266475.post-1139863734501435592006-02-13T12:48:00.000-08:002006-02-13T12:48:54.500-08:00<div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/16266475-113986373450143559?l=encyclopediageneral.blogspot.com'/></div>Murat Alperennoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-16266475.post-1139780285860612752006-02-12T13:35:00.000-08:002006-02-12T13:38:47.806-08:00Commodore 64Commodore 64[EXTRACT]<H3 id=siteSub>From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</H3>
<DIV id=contentSub></DIV>
<DIV id=jump-to-nav>Jump to: <A href="#column-one">navigation</A>, <A href="#searchInput">search</A></DIV><!-- start content -->
<DIV class=metadata id=featured-star style="Z-INDEX: 100; RIGHT: 10px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 10px">
<DIV style="OVERFLOW: hidden; WIDTH: 14px; POSITION: relative; HEIGHT: 14px">
<DIV style="FONT-SIZE: 100px; Z-INDEX: 3; LEFT: 0px; OVERFLOW: hidden; LINE-HEIGHT: 100px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 0px"><A title="Wikipedia:Featured articles" href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Featured_articles"><SPAN title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information."> </SPAN></A></DIV>
<DIV style="Z-INDEX: 2; LEFT: 0px; POSITION: absolute; TOP: 0px"><A class=image title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information." href="/wiki/Image:LinkFA-star.png"><IMG height=14 alt="This is a featured article. Click here for more information." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/60/LinkFA-star.png" width=14 longDesc=/wiki/Image:LinkFA-star.png></A></DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DL>
<DD><I>For the hip hop group, see <A title="Commodore 64 (band)" href="/wiki/Commodore_64_%28band%29">Commodore 64 (band)</A>.</I> </DD></DL>
<TABLE class=infobox style="FONT-SIZE: 90%; WIDTH: 21em; TEXT-ALIGN: left" cellSpacing=2>
<TBODY>
<TR>
<TH style="FONT-SIZE: larger; TEXT-ALIGN: center" colSpan=2>Commodore 64</TH></TR>
<TR class=image>
<TD style="TEXT-ALIGN: center" colSpan=2><A class=image title="" href="/wiki/Image:Commodore64.jpg"><IMG height=140 alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Commodore64.jpg/250px-Commodore64.jpg" width=250 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Commodore64.jpg></A>
Commodore 64 (circa 1982)</TD></TR>
<TR class="hiddenStructureJanuary, 1983">
<TH><A title=Type href="/wiki/Type">Type</A>:</TH>
<TD><A title="Home computer" href="/wiki/Home_computer">Home computer</A></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TH><A title=Developer href="/wiki/Developer">Developer</A>:</TH>
<TD><A title="Commodore International" href="/wiki/Commodore_International">Commodore Business Machines (CBM)</A></TD></TR>
<TR class="hiddenStructureJanuary, 1983">
<TH><A title=Released href="/wiki/Released">Released</A>:</TH>
<TD>January, 1983</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TH><A title=Processor href="/wiki/Processor">Processor(s)</A>:</TH>
<TD>1.023 <A title=Hertz href="/wiki/Hertz">MHz</A> <A title="MOS Technology 6510" href="/wiki/MOS_Technology_6510">MOS Technology 6510</A> <A title="Central processing unit" href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit">processor</A></TD></TR>
<TR class="external autonumber">
<TH><A title=Website href="/wiki/Website">Website</A>:</TH>
<TD><A class="external autonumber" title=http://www.c64.org href="http://www.c64.org">[2]</A></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE>
<P>The <B>Commodore 64</B> (<B>C64</B>, <B>CBM 64</B>/<B>CBM64</B>, <B>C= 64</B>) is a <A title="Home computer" href="/wiki/Home_computer">home computer</A> with 64 <A title=Kilobyte href="/wiki/Kilobyte">kilobytes</A> of <A title=RAM href="/wiki/RAM">RAM</A> that was popular in the 1980s. Released by <A title="Commodore International" href="/wiki/Commodore_International">Commodore Business Machines (CBM)</A> to the public in August 1982 at a price of <A title="United States dollar" href="/wiki/United_States_dollar">US$</A> 595, it offered sound and graphics performance that was good compared to the standard at that time. During the Commodore 64's lifetime (between 1982 and 1993), total sales exceeded 22 million units. According to the Guinness Book of World Records, the Commodore 64 still remains the best selling computer model of all time.</P>
<P>Unlike computers that were distributed only through authorized dealers, Commodore also targeted department stores and toy stores. The unit could be plugged directly into a television set and play games, giving it much of the appeal of dedicated <A title="Video game console" href="/wiki/Video_game_console">video game consoles</A> like the <A title="Atari 2600" href="/wiki/Atari_2600">Atari 2600</A>. The pricing of the C64 is considered to be a major catalyst in the <A title="Video game crash of 1983" href="/wiki/Video_game_crash_of_1983">video game crash of 1983</A>.</P>
<P>Approximately 10,000 <A title=Software href="/wiki/Software">software</A> titles were made for the Commodore 64—this includes development tools, office applications, and games. The machine is also credited with popularizing the computer <A title=Demoscene href="/wiki/Demoscene">demo scene</A>. Though the original hardware is now used only by a few hobbyists, <A title=Emulator href="/wiki/Emulator">emulators</A> allow anyone with a modern computer to run these programs on their desktop.</P>
<TABLE class=toc id=toc summary=Contents>
<TBODY>
<TR>
<TD>
<DIV id=toctitle>
<H2>Contents</H2> <SPAN class=toctoggle>[<A class=internal id=togglelink href="javascript:toggleToc()">hide</A>]</SPAN></DIV>
<UL>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#History"><SPAN class=tocnumber>1</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>History</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Origins"><SPAN class=tocnumber>1.1</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Origins</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Winning_the_market_war"><SPAN class=tocnumber>1.2</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Winning the market war</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#C64_successors_and_the_64C"><SPAN class=tocnumber>1.3</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>C64 successors and the 64C</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#An_active_demoscene"><SPAN class=tocnumber>1.4</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>An active demoscene</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#1990s_and_2000s_hardware"><SPAN class=tocnumber>1.5</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>1990s and 2000s hardware</SPAN></A> </LI></UL>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Hardware"><SPAN class=tocnumber>2</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Hardware</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Graphics_and_sound"><SPAN class=tocnumber>2.1</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Graphics and sound</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Hardware_revisions"><SPAN class=tocnumber>2.2</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Hardware revisions</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Power_problems"><SPAN class=tocnumber>2.3</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Power problems</SPAN></A> </LI></UL>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#External_hardware"><SPAN class=tocnumber>3</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>External hardware</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Software"><SPAN class=tocnumber>4</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Software</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Representative_screenshots"><SPAN class=tocnumber>5</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Representative screenshots</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Specifications"><SPAN class=tocnumber>6</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Specifications</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Internal_hardware"><SPAN class=tocnumber>6.1</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Internal hardware</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#I.2FO_ports_and_power_supply"><SPAN class=tocnumber>6.2</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>I/O ports and power supply</SPAN></A> </LI></UL>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Trivia"><SPAN class=tocnumber>7</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Trivia</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Notes"><SPAN class=tocnumber>8</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Notes</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#See_also"><SPAN class=tocnumber>9</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>See also</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#References"><SPAN class=tocnumber>10</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>References</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Books"><SPAN class=tocnumber>10.1</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Books</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Magazine_articles"><SPAN class=tocnumber>10.2</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Magazine articles</SPAN></A> </LI></UL>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#External_links"><SPAN class=tocnumber>11</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>External links</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Emulators"><SPAN class=tocnumber>11.1</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Emulators</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Link_portals"><SPAN class=tocnumber>11.2</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Link portals</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Archives"><SPAN class=tocnumber>11.3</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Archives</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Music"><SPAN class=tocnumber>11.4</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Music</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#History_2"><SPAN class=tocnumber>11.5</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>History</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Other"><SPAN class=tocnumber>11.6</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Other</SPAN></A> </LI></UL></LI></UL></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE>
<P>
<SCRIPT type=text/javascript>
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</SCRIPT>
</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Commodore 64" href="/w/index.php?title=Commodore_64&action=edit&section=1">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=History name=History></A></P>
<H2>History</H2>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Commodore 64" href="/w/index.php?title=Commodore_64&action=edit&section=2">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Origins name=Origins></A></P>
<H3>Origins</H3>
<DIV class="thumb tleft">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 182px"><A class=internal title="Close-up of C64" href="/wiki/Image:C64_artistic_closeup.jpg"><IMG height=135 alt="Close-up of C64" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/C64_artistic_closeup.jpg/180px-C64_artistic_closeup.jpg" width=180 longDesc=/wiki/Image:C64_artistic_closeup.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:C64_artistic_closeup.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Close-up of C64</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<P>In January 1981, <A title="MOS Technology" href="/wiki/MOS_Technology">MOS Technology, Inc.</A>, Commodore's <A title="Integrated circuit" href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit">integrated-circuit</A> design subsidiary, initiated a project to design the graphic and audio chips for a next generation <A title="Video game console" href="/wiki/Video_game_console">video game console</A>. Design work for the chips was completed in November 1981, but the console project was soon cancelled after a meeting with Commodore president <A title="Jack Tramiel" href="/wiki/Jack_Tramiel">Jack Tramiel</A>. Tramiel wanted the chips to form the base for a sequel to the very popular <A title=VIC-20 href="/wiki/VIC-20">VIC-20</A>. He proposed that the new system ship with with 64 <A title=Kilobyte href="/wiki/Kilobyte">kB</A> of <A title=RAM href="/wiki/RAM">RAM</A>, which was double the quantity that most <A title="Home computer" href="/wiki/Home_computer">home computers</A> contained in late 1981. Although 64 kB of RAM cost over US$ 100 at the time, Tramiel knew that <A title=DRAM href="/wiki/DRAM">DRAM</A> prices were falling, and would drop to an acceptable level before full production was reached.</P>
<P>The design team was given less than two months to develop a working prototype — <A title=Codename href="/wiki/Codename">codenamed</A> the <B>VIC-30</B> — so that it could be finished in time for the winter <A title="Consumer Electronics Show" href="/wiki/Consumer_Electronics_Show">Consumer Electronics Show</A> in January 1982. The C64 made an impressive debut, as recalled by Production Engineer David A. Ziembicki: "All we saw at our booth were Atari people with their mouths dropping open, saying, 'How can you do that for $595?'" The answer, as it turned out, was <A title="Vertical integration" href="/wiki/Vertical_integration">vertical integration</A>; thanks to Commodore's ownership of <A title="MOS Technology" href="/wiki/MOS_Technology">MOS Technology</A>'s <A title="Semiconductor fabrication" href="/wiki/Semiconductor_fabrication">semiconductor fabrication</A> facilities, each C64 had an estimated production cost of only $135.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Commodore 64" href="/w/index.php?title=Commodore_64&action=edit&section=3">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Winning_the_market_war name=Winning_the_market_war></A></P>
<H3>Winning the market war</H3>
<P>The C64 faced a wide range of competing <A title="Home computer" href="/wiki/Home_computer">home computers</A> at its introduction in August 1982. With an impressive price point coupled with the 64's advanced hardware, it quickly out-classed many of its competitors. In the <A title="United States" href="/wiki/United_States">United States</A> the greatest competitors to the C64 were the <A title="Atari 8-bit" href="/wiki/Atari_8-bit">Atari 800</A> and <A title="Apple II" href="/wiki/Apple_II">Apple II</A>. The <A title=Atari href="/wiki/Atari">Atari</A> 800 was very similar in hardware terms, but it was very expensive to build, which soon forced Atari to move their production to the Far East. It also forced Atari to redesign their machine to be more cost effective, resulting in the 600XL/800XL line. The aging Apple II was no match for the C64's graphics and sound abilities, but was very expandable with its internal expansion slots, a feature lacking in the 64.</P>
<P>In the <A title="United Kingdom" href="/wiki/United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</A>, the primary competitors to the C64 were the British-built <A title="Sinclair Research Ltd" href="/wiki/Sinclair_Research_Ltd">Sinclair</A> <A title="ZX Spectrum" href="/wiki/ZX_Spectrum">ZX Spectrum</A> and the <A title=Amstrad href="/wiki/Amstrad">Amstrad</A> <A title="Amstrad CPC" href="/wiki/Amstrad_CPC">CPC</A>. Released a few months ahead of the C64, and selling for almost half the price, the Spectrum quickly became the market leader. The C64 would rival the Spectrum in popularity in the latter half of the 1980s, eventually outliving the Spectrum (which was discontinued in 1992).</P>
<P>One key to the C64's success was Commodore's aggressive marketing tactics. Commodore sold the C64 not only through its network of authorized dealers, but also placed it on the shelves of department stores, discount stores, and toy stores. Since it had the ability to output <A title="Composite video" href="/wiki/Composite_video">composite video</A>, the C64 did not require a specialized monitor, but could be plugged into a television set. This allowed it (like its predecessor, the VIC-20) to compete directly against video game consoles such as the <A title="Atari 2600" href="/wiki/Atari_2600">Atari 2600</A>.</P>
<P>Aggressive pricing of the C64 is considered to be a major catalyst in the <A title="Video game crash of 1983" href="/wiki/Video_game_crash_of_1983">video game crash of 1983</A>. In 1983, Commodore offered a $100 <A title="Rebate (marketing)" href="/wiki/Rebate_%28marketing%29">rebate</A> in the United States on the purchase of a C64 upon receipt of any video game console or computer. To take advantage of the $100 rebate, some mail-order dealers and retailers offered a <A title="Timex Sinclair 1000" href="/wiki/Timex_Sinclair_1000">Timex Sinclair 1000</A> for as little as $10 with purchase of a C64 so the consumer could send the computer to Commodore, collect the rebate, and pocket the difference.<SPAN class=reference><SUP class=plainlinksneverexpand id=ref_doorstop><A class="external autonumber" title="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore 64#endnote doorstop" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_64#endnote_doorstop">[3]</A></SUP></SPAN> <A title="Timex Corporation" href="/wiki/Timex_Corporation">Timex Corporation</A> departed the marketplace within a year. The success of the VIC-20 and C64 also contributed significantly to the exit of <A title="Texas Instruments" href="/wiki/Texas_Instruments">Texas Instruments</A>' <A title="Texas Instruments TI-99/4A" href="/wiki/Texas_Instruments_TI-99/4A">TI-99/4A</A> and other competitors from the field.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Commodore 64" href="/w/index.php?title=Commodore_64&action=edit&section=4">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=C64_successors_and_the_64C name=C64_successors_and_the_64C></A></P>
<H3>C64 successors and the 64C</H3>
<DIV class="thumb tleft">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 252px"><A class=internal title="Commodore SX-64 (1984)" href="/wiki/Image:Sx64.jpg"><IMG height=158 alt="Commodore SX-64 (1984)" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fa/Sx64.jpg/250px-Sx64.jpg" width=250 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Sx64.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Sx64.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Commodore SX-64 (1984)</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<P>In 1984 Commodore released the <A title="Commodore SX-64" href="/wiki/Commodore_SX-64">SX-64</A>, a portable version of the C64. The SX-64 has the distinction of being the first <I>full-color</I> portable computer. The base unit featured a 5 inch (127 mm) <A title="Cathode ray tube" href="/wiki/Cathode_ray_tube">CRT</A> and an integral <A title="Commodore 1541" href="/wiki/Commodore_1541">1541</A> floppy disk drive. Although critically acclaimed, due to its significantly higher price over the standard C64, fewer than 10,000 had been sold by the time it was discontinued in 1986.</P>
<P>In 1984, Commodore released the <A title="Commodore Plus/4" href="/wiki/Commodore_Plus/4">Commodore Plus/4</A>. While many industry critics viewed this as an attempt to replace the C64, it was in fact a replacement for the <A title=VIC-20 href="/wiki/VIC-20">VIC-20</A>. The Plus/4 offered a higher-color display, a better implementation of <A title="Commodore BASIC" href="/wiki/Commodore_BASIC">BASIC</A> (V3.5), and built-in software. But because it was a replacement for the VIC-20 and not the C64, Commodore committed what was perceived by critics and consumers as a major strategic error by making it incompatible with a majority of the existing C64 software library. To top it all off, the Plus/4 lacked hardware <A title="Sprite (computer graphics)" href="/wiki/Sprite_%28computer_graphics%29">sprite</A> capability and had much poorer sound - even inferior to that of the VIC-20 - thus seriously underperforming in two of the areas that had made the C64 a star. Furthermore, none of the C64's external peripherals save for the monitor and most joysticks were compatible with the port connections on the Plus/4, and the promised floppy drives were not available for the first three months the Plus/4 was in the stores. The misconceived and misperceived new machine flopped, to no one's surprise except Commodore's, while demand for the C64 merely increased as old store stock was being liquidated to make room for the supposedly superior replacements.</P>
<P>On a side note, the Plus/4 was later dumped on TV audiences the next year via phone sales and two-minute "infomercials". Commodore created a dummy company called the <A class=new title="C.O.M.B. Company" href="/w/index.php?title=C.O.M.B._Company&action=edit">C.O.M.B. Company</A>. While the acronym reportedly stood for "Commodore Overstock Management Bureau", it was more commonly referred to as an acronym for "Crawling Out My Butt", referring to the sheer numbers of Plus/4s that were stuck in warehouses across the country that were eventually returned to Commodore.</P>
<P>Commodore was determined not to repeat the same mistake, and made sure that the eventual successors to the C64—the <A title="Commodore 128" href="/wiki/Commodore_128">Commodore 128</A> and 128D computers (1985)—were as good as, and fully compatible with, the original, as well as offering a host of long-sought improvements (such as a structured BASIC with graphics and sound commands, 80-column display capability, and full CP/M compatibility). The basic design of the 128, in fact, had already been marketed successfully in the Northern European and Scandinavian countries as early as 1983 as the <A title="Commodore B-128" href="/wiki/Commodore_B-128">Commodore B-128</A>. As the Commodore 128 and other manufacturers' more advanced computers came onto the market, Commodore positioned the 64 as an entry-level computer, lowering the price as necessary.</P>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 352px"><A class=internal title="Commodore 64C system with 1541-II floppy drive and 1084S RGB monitor (1986)" href="/wiki/Image:C64c_system.jpg"><IMG height=280 alt="Commodore 64C system with 1541-II floppy drive and 1084S RGB monitor (1986)" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/C64c_system.jpg/350px-C64c_system.jpg" width=350 longDesc=/wiki/Image:C64c_system.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:C64c_system.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Commodore 64C system with 1541-II floppy drive and 1084S RGB monitor (1986)</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<P>In 1986, Commodore released the <B>Commodore 64C</B> (<B>C64C</B>) computer, which was functionally identical to the original, but whose exterior design was remodelled in the spirit of the C128 and other contemporary design trends. In the <A title=U.S. href="/wiki/U.S.">U.S.</A>, the C64C often came bundled with the third-party <A title="GEOS (8-bit operating system)" href="/wiki/GEOS_%288-bit_operating_system%29">GEOS</A> <A title="Graphical user interface" href="/wiki/Graphical_user_interface">GUI</A>-based operating system.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Commodore 64" href="/w/index.php?title=Commodore_64&action=edit&section=5">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=An_active_demoscene name=An_active_demoscene></A></P>
<H3>An active demoscene</H3>
<P>At the time of its introduction, the C64's graphics and sound capabilities were rivaled only by the <A title="Atari 8-bit family" href="/wiki/Atari_8-bit_family">Atari 8-bit family</A>. This was at a time when most IBM PCs and compatibles had text-only graphics cards, <A title="Green screen" href="/wiki/Green_screen">green screen</A> monitors, and sound consisting of squeaks and beeps from the built-in tiny, low-quality <A title=Loudspeaker href="/wiki/Loudspeaker">speaker</A>.</P>
<P>Due to its advanced graphics and sound, the 64 is often credited with starting the computer subculture known as the <A title=Demoscene href="/wiki/Demoscene">demoscene</A> (see <A title="Commodore 64 demos" href="/wiki/Commodore_64_demos">Commodore 64 demos</A>). As of the turn of the millennium, it is still being actively used as a demo machine, especially for music (its <A title="Sound chip" href="/wiki/Sound_chip">sound chip</A> even being used in special sound cards for PCs). For all other than die-hard enthusiasts, however, the C64 lost its top position among demo coders when the <A title=16-bit href="/wiki/16-bit">16-bit</A> <A title="Atari ST" href="/wiki/Atari_ST">Atari ST</A> and <A title="Commodore Amiga" href="/wiki/Commodore_Amiga">Commodore Amiga</A> were released in the mid-80s.</P>
<P>The demoscene is far from being dead even more than 20 years after the C64 was invented. New games are still being developed. A noteworthy one is <I><A class="external text" title=http://www.newcomer.hu href="http://www.newcomer.hu">Enhanced Newcomer</A></I>, which took almost 10 years of development.</P>
<P>The differences between <A title=PAL href="/wiki/PAL">PAL</A> and <A title=NTSC href="/wiki/NTSC">NTSC</A> C64s cause compatibility problems between US/Canadian C64s and those from most other countries. Most demos run only on PAL machines.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Commodore 64" href="/w/index.php?title=Commodore_64&action=edit&section=6">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A name=1990s_and_2000s_hardware></A></P>
<H3>1990s and 2000s hardware</H3>
<P>In 1990 the C64 was re-released in the form of a games console, called the <A title="Commodore C64 Games System" href="/wiki/Commodore_C64_Games_System">C64 Games System</A> (<B>C64GS</B>). It was basically a C64 motherboard modified to orient the cartridge connector to a vertical position, to allow cartridges to be inserted from above. A modified ROM replaced the BASIC interpreter with a boot screen to inform the user to insert a cartridge. Needless to say, the C64GS was another commercial failure for Commodore, and was never even released outside of Europe. In 1990/91, an advanced intended successor to the C64, the <A title="Commodore 65" href="/wiki/Commodore_65">Commodore 65</A> (also known as the "C64DX"), was prototyped, but never released.</P>
<P>In the summer of 2004, after an absence from the marketplace of more than 10 years, PC manufacturer <A title="Tulip Computers BV" href="/wiki/Tulip_Computers_BV">Tulip Computers BV</A> (owners of the Commodore brand since 1997) announced the <A title="C64 Direct-to-TV" href="/wiki/C64_Direct-to-TV">C64 Direct-to-TV</A> <B>(C64DTV)</B>, a <A title=Joystick href="/wiki/Joystick">joystick</A>-based <A title="TV game" href="/wiki/TV_game">TV game</A> based on the C64 with 30 games built into ROM. Designed by <A title="Jeri Ellsworth" href="/wiki/Jeri_Ellsworth">Jeri Ellsworth</A>, a self-taught computer designer who had earlier designed the modern <A title=C-One href="/wiki/C-One">C-One</A> C64 implementation, the C64DTV was similar in concept to other mini-consoles based on the <A title="Atari 2600" href="/wiki/Atari_2600">Atari 2600</A> and <A title=Intellivision href="/wiki/Intellivision">Intellivision</A> which had gained modest success earlier in the decade. The product was advertised on <A title=QVC href="/wiki/QVC">QVC</A> in the United States for the 2004 holiday season. Some users have installed <A title="Commodore 1541" href="/wiki/Commodore_1541">1541</A> floppy disk drives, hard drives, second joysticks and keyboards to these units, which give the DTV devices nearly all of the capabilities of a full Commodore 64. The DTV hardware is also used in the mini-console/game <I><A class=new title="Hummer (video game)" href="/w/index.php?title=Hummer_%28video_game%29&action=edit">Hummer</A></I>, sold at <A title="Radio Shack" href="/wiki/Radio_Shack">Radio Shack</A> mid-2005.</P>
<P><A title="As of 2005" href="/wiki/As_of_2005">As of 2005</A> C64 enthusiasts still develop new hardware, including <A title=Ethernet href="/wiki/Ethernet">Ethernet</A> cards, specially adapted <A title="Hard disk" href="/wiki/Hard_disk">hard disks</A> and <A title="Flash memory" href="/wiki/Flash_memory">Flash</A> Card interfaces.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Commodore 64" href="/w/index.php?title=Commodore_64&action=edit&section=7">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Hardware name=Hardware></A></P>
<H2>Hardware</H2>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Commodore 64" href="/w/index.php?title=Commodore_64&action=edit&section=8">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Graphics_and_sound name=Graphics_and_sound></A></P>
<H3>Graphics and sound</H3>
<P>The C64 used an <A title=8-bit href="/wiki/8-bit">8-bit</A> <A title="MOS Technology 6510" href="/wiki/MOS_Technology_6510">MOS Technology 6510</A> <A title=Microprocessor href="/wiki/Microprocessor">microprocessor</A> (a close derivative of the <A title="MOS Technology 6502" href="/wiki/MOS_Technology_6502">6502</A> with an added 6-bit internal I/O port that in the C64 is used for two purposes: to bank-switch the machine's <A title="Read-only memory" href="/wiki/Read-only_memory">ROM</A> in and out of the processor's address space, and to operate the <A title=Datasette href="/wiki/Datasette">datasette</A> tape recorder) and had 64 <A title=Kilobyte href="/wiki/Kilobyte">kilobytes</A> of <A title="Random access memory" href="/wiki/Random_access_memory">RAM</A>, of which 38 kB were available to built-in <A title="Commodore BASIC" href="/wiki/Commodore_BASIC">Commodore BASIC 2.0</A>.</P>
<P>The graphics chip, <A title="MOS Technology VIC-II" href="/wiki/MOS_Technology_VIC-II">VIC-II</A>, featured 16 colors, eight <A title="Sprite (computer graphics)" href="/wiki/Sprite_%28computer_graphics%29">sprites</A>, <A title=Scrolling href="/wiki/Scrolling">scrolling</A> capabilities, and two bitmap graphics modes. The standard text mode featured 40 columns, like most <A title="Commodore PET" href="/wiki/Commodore_PET">Commodore PET</A> models. <A title="Computer game" href="/wiki/Computer_game">Computer</A>/<A title="Computer and video games" href="/wiki/Computer_and_video_games">video game</A> and <A title=Demoscene href="/wiki/Demoscene">demo</A> programmers quickly learned how to exploit quirks in the VIC-II to gain additional capabilities, like making more than 8 sprites appear, and move, simultaneously.</P>
<P>The sound chip, <A title="MOS Technology SID" href="/wiki/MOS_Technology_SID">SID</A>, had three channels with several different <A title=Waveform href="/wiki/Waveform">waveforms</A>, <A title="Ring modulation" href="/wiki/Ring_modulation">ring modulation</A> and filter capabilities. It, too, was very advanced for its time. It was designed by Bob Yannes, who would later co-found synthesizer company <A title=Ensoniq href="/wiki/Ensoniq">Ensoniq</A>. Yannes criticized other contemporary computer sound chips as "primitive, obviously (...) designed by people who knew nothing about music." Often the game music became a hit of its own among C64 users. Well-known composers and programmers of game music on the C64 were <A title="Rob Hubbard" href="/wiki/Rob_Hubbard">Rob Hubbard</A>, <A title="Ben Daglish" href="/wiki/Ben_Daglish">Ben Daglish</A> and <A title="Martin Galway" href="/wiki/Martin_Galway">Martin Galway</A>, among many others.</P>
<P>The SID chip has a distinctive sound which retained a following of devotees. In 1999, Swedish company Elektron produced a "SID Station" synth module, built around the SID chip, using remaining stocks of the chip.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Commodore 64" href="/w/index.php?title=Commodore_64&action=edit&section=9">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Hardware_revisions name=Hardware_revisions></A></P>
<H3>Hardware revisions</H3>
<P>Cost reduction was the driving force for hardware revisions to the C64's motherboard. Reducing manufacturing costs was vitally important to Commodore's survival during the price war and leaner years of the 16-bit era. The C64's original (<A title=NMOS href="/wiki/NMOS">NMOS</A> based) motherboard would go through two major redesigns, (and numerous sub-revisions) exchanging positions of the VIC-II, SID and <A title="Programmable logic array" href="/wiki/Programmable_logic_array">PLA</A> chips. Initially, a large proportion of the cost was lowered by reducing the number of discrete components used, such as diodes and resistors.</P>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 352px"><A class=internal title="An early C64 motherboard. (Rev A PAL 1982)" href="/wiki/Image:C64motherboard.jpg"><IMG height=163 alt="An early C64 motherboard. (Rev A PAL 1982)" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/C64motherboard.jpg/350px-C64motherboard.jpg" width=350 longDesc=/wiki/Image:C64motherboard.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:C64motherboard.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>An early C64 motherboard. (Rev A <A title=PAL href="/wiki/PAL">PAL</A> 1982)</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 352px"><A class=internal title='A C64C motherboard ("C64E" Rev B PAL 1992)' href="/wiki/Image:C64Cmotherboard.jpg"><IMG height=125 alt='A C64C motherboard ("C64E" Rev B PAL 1992)' src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/C64Cmotherboard.jpg/350px-C64Cmotherboard.jpg" width=350 longDesc=/wiki/Image:C64Cmotherboard.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:C64Cmotherboard.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>A C64C motherboard ("C64E" Rev B PAL 1992)</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<P>The VIC-II was manufactured with 5 <A title=Micrometer href="/wiki/Micrometer">micrometer</A> <A title=NMOS href="/wiki/NMOS">NMOS</A> technology, clocked at 8 MHz. At such a high clock rate, it generated a lot of heat, forcing MOS Technology to use a ceramic <A title="Dual in-line package" href="/wiki/Dual_in-line_package">DIL package</A> (called a "CERDIP"). The ceramic package was more expensive, but it dissipated heat more effectively than plastic.</P>
<P>After a redesign in 1983, the VIC-II was encased in a plastic DIL package, which reduced costs substantially, but it did not eliminate the heat problem. Without a ceramic package, the VIC-II required the use of a <A title=Heatsink href="/wiki/Heatsink">heatsink</A>. To avoid extra cost, the metal <A title="Radio frequency" href="/wiki/Radio_frequency">RF</A> <A title="Electromagnetic shielding" href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_shielding">shielding</A> doubled as the heatsink for the VIC, although not all units shipped with this type of shielding. Most C64s in <A title=Europe href="/wiki/Europe">Europe</A> shipped with a cardboard RF shield, coated with a layer of metal foil. The effectiveness of the cardboard was highly questionable, and worse still it acted as an insulator, blocking airflow which trapped heat generated by the SID, VIC and PLA chips.</P>
<P>The SID was manufactured using NMOS at 7 and in some areas 6 micrometers. The prototype SID and some very early production models featured a ceramic DIL package, but unlike the VIC-II, these are extremely rare as the SID was encased in plastic when production started in early 1982.</P>
<P>In 1986 Commodore released the last revision to the "classic" C64 motherboard. It was otherwise identical to the 1984 design, except that it now used two 64 kbit ×4 <A title=DRAM href="/wiki/DRAM">DRAM</A> chips rather than the original eight 64 kbit ×1.</P>
<P>After the release of the C64C, MOS Technology began to reconfigure the C64's chipset to use <A title=HMOS href="/wiki/HMOS">HMOS</A> technology. The main benefit of using HMOS was that it required less voltage to drive the IC, which consequently generates less heat. This enhanced the overall reliability of the SID and VIC-II. The new chipset was re-numbered to 85xx in order to reflect the change to HMOS.</P>
<P>In 1987 Commodore released C64Cs with a totally redesigned motherboard commonly known as a "short board". The new board used the new HMOS chipset, featuring new 64-pin PLA chip. The new "SuperPLA" as it was dubbed, integrated many discrete components and <A title="Transistor-transistor logic" href="/wiki/Transistor-transistor_logic">TTL</A> chips. The 2114 color RAM was integrated into the last revision of the PLA.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Commodore 64" href="/w/index.php?title=Commodore_64&action=edit&section=10">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Power_problems name=Power_problems></A></P>
<H3>Power problems</H3>
<P>The C64 used an external <A title="Power supply" href="/wiki/Power_supply">power supply</A>. While this saved valuable space within the computer's case, the supply itself was inadequate for the C64's power requirements and often failed from overheating. Commodore's infamous "brick" power supplies being the most likely offenders. Many users purchased heavier-duty, better-cooled, third-party power supplies. Later in the Commodore's lifetime, third-party power supplies became increasingly important when used in conjuction with <A title="Creative Micro Designs" href="/wiki/Creative_Micro_Designs">Creative Micro Designs</A>' peripherals. Of particular note, a C64 coupled with a RAM expansion or CMD <A class=new title=SuperCPU href="/w/index.php?title=SuperCPU&action=edit">SuperCPU</A> required more power than the original Commodore power supply could provide.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Commodore 64" href="/w/index.php?title=Commodore_64&action=edit&section=11">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=External_hardware name=External_hardware></A></P>
<H2>External hardware</H2>
<DL>
<DD><I>Main article: <A title="Commodore 64 peripherals" href="/wiki/Commodore_64_peripherals">Commodore 64 peripherals</A></I> </DD></DL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Commodore 64" href="/w/index.php?title=Commodore_64&action=edit&section=12">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Software name=Software></A></P>
<H2>Software</H2>
<DL>
<DD><I>Main article: <A title="Commodore 64 software" href="/wiki/Commodore_64_software">Commodore 64 software</A></I> </DD></DL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Commodore 64" href="/w/index.php?title=Commodore_64&action=edit&section=13">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Representative_screenshots name=Representative_screenshots></A></P>
<H2>Representative screenshots</H2>
<CENTER>
<TABLE class=gallery cellSpacing=0 cellPadding=0>
<TBODY>
<TR>
<TD>
<DIV class=gallerybox>
<DIV class=thumb style="PADDING-RIGHT: 0px; PADDING-LEFT: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 30px; PADDING-TOP: 30px"><A title="Image:C64 Multiplan.png" href="/wiki/Image:C64_Multiplan.png"><IMG height=85 alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/60/C64_Multiplan.png/120px-C64_Multiplan.png" width=120></A></DIV>
<DIV class=gallerytext>
<P><A title=Multiplan href="/wiki/Multiplan">Multiplan</A>
<A title=Microsoft href="/wiki/Microsoft">Microsoft</A> (1983)</P></DIV></DIV></TD>
<TD>
<DIV class=gallerybox>
<DIV class=thumb style="PADDING-RIGHT: 0px; PADDING-LEFT: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 30px; PADDING-TOP: 30px"><A title="Image:C64 Koala Painter.png" href="/wiki/Image:C64_Koala_Painter.png"><IMG height=85 alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/77/C64_Koala_Painter.png/120px-C64_Koala_Painter.png" width=120></A></DIV>
<DIV class=gallerytext>
<P><A title=KoalaPad/Painter href="/wiki/KoalaPad/Painter">Koala Paint</A>
Koala/Audio Light (1983)</P></DIV></DIV></TD>
<TD>
<DIV class=gallerybox>
<DIV class=thumb style="PADDING-RIGHT: 0px; PADDING-LEFT: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 35px; PADDING-TOP: 35px"><A title="Image:C64 GEOS.png" href="/wiki/Image:C64_GEOS.png"><IMG height=75 alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b6/C64_GEOS.png/120px-C64_GEOS.png" width=120></A></DIV>
<DIV class=gallerytext>
<P><A title="GEOS (8-bit operating system)" href="/wiki/GEOS_%288-bit_operating_system%29">GEOS</A> (desktop)
Berkeley Softworks (1986)</P></DIV></DIV></TD>
<TD>
<DIV class=gallerybox>
<DIV class=thumb style="PADDING-RIGHT: 0px; PADDING-LEFT: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 35px; PADDING-TOP: 35px"><A title="Image:C64 Geowrite.png" href="/wiki/Image:C64_Geowrite.png"><IMG height=75 alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f6/C64_Geowrite.png/120px-C64_Geowrite.png" width=120></A></DIV>
<DIV class=gallerytext>
<P>geoWrite
Berkeley Softworks (1987)</P></DIV></DIV></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD>
<DIV class=gallerybox>
<DIV class=thumb style="PADDING-RIGHT: 0px; PADDING-LEFT: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 35px; PADDING-TOP: 35px"><A title="Image:C64 Donkey Kong.png" href="/wiki/Image:C64_Donkey_Kong.png"><IMG height=75 alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8c/C64_Donkey_Kong.png/120px-C64_Donkey_Kong.png" width=120></A></DIV>
<DIV class=gallerytext>
<P><I><A title="Donkey Kong (arcade game)" href="/wiki/Donkey_Kong_%28arcade_game%29">Donkey Kong</A></I>
<A title=Nintendo href="/wiki/Nintendo">Nintendo</A> (1983)</P></DIV></DIV></TD>
<TD>
<DIV class=gallerybox>
<DIV class=thumb style="PADDING-RIGHT: 0px; PADDING-LEFT: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 35px; PADDING-TOP: 35px"><A title="Image:C64 Winter Games.png" href="/wiki/Image:C64_Winter_Games.png"><IMG height=75 alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/60/C64_Winter_Games.png/120px-C64_Winter_Games.png" width=120></A></DIV>
<DIV class=gallerytext>
<P><I><A title="Winter Games" href="/wiki/Winter_Games">Winter Games</A></I>
<A title=Epyx href="/wiki/Epyx">Epyx</A> (1985)</P></DIV></DIV></TD>
<TD>
<DIV class=gallerybox>
<DIV class=thumb style="PADDING-RIGHT: 0px; PADDING-LEFT: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 35px; PADDING-TOP: 35px"><A title="Image:C64 IKPlus.png" href="/wiki/Image:C64_IKPlus.png"><IMG height=75 alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/3f/C64_IKPlus.png/120px-C64_IKPlus.png" width=120></A></DIV>
<DIV class=gallerytext>
<P><I><A title="International Karate Plus" href="/wiki/International_Karate_Plus">International Karate+</A></I>
<A class=new title="System 3 (company)" href="/w/index.php?title=System_3_%28company%29&action=edit">System 3</A> (1987)</P></DIV></DIV></TD>
<TD>
<DIV class=gallerybox>
<DIV class=thumb style="PADDING-RIGHT: 0px; PADDING-LEFT: 0px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 30px; PADDING-TOP: 30px"><A title="Image:C64 Creatures II.png" href="/wiki/Image:C64_Creatures_II.png"><IMG height=85 alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/C64_Creatures_II.png/120px-C64_Creatures_II.png" width=120></A></DIV>
<DIV class=gallerytext>
<P><I><A class=new title="Creatures II" href="/w/index.php?title=Creatures_II&action=edit">Creatures II</A></I>
Thalamus/Apex (1993)</P></DIV></DIV></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE>
<P>Additional screenshots can be found on the <A title="Commodore 64 software" href="/wiki/Commodore_64_software">Commodore 64 software</A> page.</P></CENTER>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Commodore 64" href="/w/index.php?title=Commodore_64&action=edit&section=14">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Specifications name=Specifications></A></P>
<H2>Specifications</H2>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Commodore 64" href="/w/index.php?title=Commodore_64&action=edit&section=15">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Internal_hardware name=Internal_hardware></A></P>
<H3>Internal hardware</H3>
<UL>
<LI>Microprocessor CPU:
<UL>
<LI><A title="MOS Technology 6510" href="/wiki/MOS_Technology_6510">MOS Technology 6510/8500</A> (the 6510/8500 being a modified <A title="MOS Technology 6502" href="/wiki/MOS_Technology_6502">6502</A> with an integrated 6-bit I/O port)
<LI>Clock speed: 1.023 MHz (<A title=NTSC href="/wiki/NTSC">NTSC</A>) or 0.985 MHz (<A title=PAL href="/wiki/PAL">PAL</A>) </LI></UL>
<LI>Video: <A title="MOS Technology VIC-II" href="/wiki/MOS_Technology_VIC-II">MOS Technology VIC-II</A> 6567/8567 (NTSC), 6569/8569 (PAL)
<UL>
<LI>16 colors
<LI>Text mode: 40×25 characters; 256 user-defined chars (8×8 <A title=Pixel href="/wiki/Pixel">pixels</A>, or 4×8 in multicolor mode); 4-bit color RAM defines foreground color
<LI>Bitmap modes: 320×200 (2 colors in each 8×8 block), 160×200 (3 colors plus background in each 4×8 block)
<LI>8 hardware <A title="Sprite (computer graphics)" href="/wiki/Sprite_%28computer_graphics%29">sprites</A> of 24×21 pixels (12×21 in multicolor mode)
<LI>Smooth <A title=Scrolling href="/wiki/Scrolling">scrolling</A>, <A title=Raster href="/wiki/Raster">raster</A> <A title=Interrupt href="/wiki/Interrupt">interrupts</A> </LI></UL>
<LI>Sound: <A title="MOS Technology SID" href="/wiki/MOS_Technology_SID">MOS Technology 6581/8580 SID</A>
<UL>
<LI>3-channel <A title=Synthesizer href="/wiki/Synthesizer">synthesizer</A> with programmable <A title=Synthesizer href="/wiki/Synthesizer#sound_basics">ADSR</A> envelope
<LI>8 <A title=Octave href="/wiki/Octave">octaves</A>
<LI>4 waveforms: triangle, sawtooth, variable pulse, noise
<LI>Oscillator synchronization, <A title="Ring modulation" href="/wiki/Ring_modulation">ring modulation</A>
<LI>Programmable filter: <A title="High-pass filter" href="/wiki/High-pass_filter">high pass</A>, <A title="Low-pass filter" href="/wiki/Low-pass_filter">low pass</A>, <A title="Band-pass filter" href="/wiki/Band-pass_filter">band pass</A>, <A title="Notch filter" href="/wiki/Notch_filter">notch filter</A> </LI></UL>
<LI>RAM:
<UL>
<LI>64 <A title=Kilobyte href="/wiki/Kilobyte">kB</A> (65,536 bytes), of which 38 kB minus 1 byte (38911 bytes) were available for BASIC programs
<LI>0.5 kB color RAM (1 k <A title=Nybble href="/wiki/Nybble">nybbles</A>)
<LI>Expandable to 320 kB with <A title="Commodore REU" href="/wiki/Commodore_REU">Commodore 1764</A> 256 kB RAM Expansion Unit (REU); although only 64 kB directly accessible; REU mostly intended for <A title="GEOS (8-bit operating system)" href="/wiki/GEOS_%288-bit_operating_system%29">GEOS</A>. REUs of 128 kB and 512 kB, originally designed for the C128, were also available, but required the user to buy a stronger power supply from some third party supplier; with the 1764 this was included. </LI></UL>
<LI>ROM:
<UL>
<LI>20 kB (9 kB <A title="Commodore BASIC" href="/wiki/Commodore_BASIC">BASIC 2.0</A>; 7 kB <A title=KERNAL href="/wiki/KERNAL">KERNAL</A>; 4 k character generator, providing two 2 k character sets) </LI></UL></LI></UL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Commodore 64" href="/w/index.php?title=Commodore_64&action=edit&section=16">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=I.2FO_ports_and_power_supply name=I.2FO_ports_and_power_supply></A></P>
<H3>I/O ports and power supply</H3>
<UL>
<LI>I/O ports:
<UL>
<LI>8-pin <A title="DIN plug" href="/wiki/DIN_plug">DIN plug</A> containing composite video output, separate Y/C outputs, and sound input/output. (Some early C64 units utilized a 5-pin DIN connector that omitted the Y/C output.)
<LI>Integrated <A title="RF modulator" href="/wiki/RF_modulator">RF modulator</A> antenna output via a <A title=RCA href="/wiki/RCA">RCA</A> connector
<LI>2 × screwless <A title=D-subminiature href="/wiki/D-subminiature">DE9M</A> <A title="Game controller" href="/wiki/Game_controller">game controller</A> ports (compatible with Atari 2600 controllers), each supporting five digital inputs and two analog inputs. Available peripherals included digital <A title=Joystick href="/wiki/Joystick">joysticks</A>, analog <A title="Paddle (game controller)" href="/wiki/Paddle_%28game_controller%29">paddles</A>, a <A title="Light pen" href="/wiki/Light_pen">light pen</A>, the Commodore 1351 <A title="Computer mouse" href="/wiki/Computer_mouse">mouse</A>, and the unique <A title=KoalaPad href="/wiki/KoalaPad">KoalaPad</A>.
<LI><A title="Cartridge (electronics)" href="/wiki/Cartridge_%28electronics%29">Cartridge</A> expansion slot (slot for <A title="Edge connector" href="/wiki/Edge_connector">edge connector</A> with 6510 CPU address/data bus lines and control signals, as well as GND and voltage pins; used for program modules and memory expansions, among others)
<LI><A title="Commodore PET" href="/wiki/Commodore_PET">PET</A>-type <A title=Datassette href="/wiki/Datassette">Datassette</A> 300 <A title=Baud href="/wiki/Baud">baud</A> tape interface (edge connector with cassette motor/read/write/sense signals and GND and +5 V pins; the motor pin is powered to directly supply the motor)
<LI>User port (edge connector with <A title="Transistor-transistor logic" href="/wiki/Transistor-transistor_logic">TTL</A>-level <A title=RS-232 href="/wiki/RS-232">RS-232</A> signals, for modems, etc; and byte-parallel signals which can be used to drive third-party parallel printers, among other things; with 17 logic signals, 7 GND and voltage pins, including 9 V AC voltage)
<LI>Serial bus (serial version of <A title=IEEE-488 href="/wiki/IEEE-488">IEEE-488</A>, 6-pin DIN plug) for CBM printers and disk drives </LI></UL>
<LI>Power supply: 5 V DC and 9 V AC from external "monolithic power brick", attached to computer's 7-pin female DIN-connector </LI></UL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Commodore 64" href="/w/index.php?title=Commodore_64&action=edit&section=17">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Trivia name=Trivia></A></P>
<H2>Trivia</H2>
<UL>
<LI>The Commodore 64's startup screen was spoofed in the startup sequence of the 2002 computer/video game <I><A title="Grand Theft Auto: Vice City" href="/wiki/Grand_Theft_Auto:_Vice_City">Grand Theft Auto: Vice City</A></I>.
<LI><I><A class="external text" title="http://www.homestarrunner.com/pop tire.html" href="http://www.homestarrunner.com/pop_tire.html">Population: Tire</A></I>, a game from animated flash site <A class="external text" title=http://www.homestarrunner.com href="http://www.homestarrunner.com">HomestarRunner.com</A>, also starts up with a spoofed screen of the Commodore 64, called "Compydore 64".
<LI>The Commodore 64's BASIC V2, the programming language which came built-in the computer, could be crashed by executing <TT>PRINT""+-[x]</TT> (where x is any integer). </LI></UL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Commodore 64" href="/w/index.php?title=Commodore_64&action=edit&section=18">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Notes name=Notes></A></P>
<H2>Notes</H2>
<OL>
<LI><CITE id=endnote_doorstop style="FONT-STYLE: normal"><A title="" href="#ref_doorstop"><B>^</B></A></CITE> A contemporary rumor stated that while Commodore scavenged most trade-in computers for spare parts, its employees used the TS1000s as <A title="Door stop" href="/wiki/Door_stop">door stops</A>. </LI></OL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Commodore 64" href="/w/index.php?title=Commodore_64&action=edit&section=19">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=See_also name=See_also></A></P>
<H2>See also</H2>
<UL>
<LI><A title="Commodore 64 Games System" href="/wiki/Commodore_64_Games_System">Commodore 64 Games System</A>
<LI><A title="Commodore 64 software" href="/wiki/Commodore_64_software">Commodore 64 software</A>
<LI><A title="List of Commodore 64 games" href="/wiki/List_of_Commodore_64_games">List of Commodore 64 games</A>
<LI><A title="Commodore 64 demos" href="/wiki/Commodore_64_demos">Commodore 64 demos</A>
<LI><A title="Commodore 128" href="/wiki/Commodore_128">Commodore 128</A> </LI></UL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Commodore 64" href="/w/index.php?title=Commodore_64&action=edit&section=20">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=References name=References></A></P>
<H2>References</H2>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Commodore 64" href="/w/index.php?title=Commodore_64&action=edit&section=21">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Books name=Books></A></P>
<H3>Books</H3>
<UL>
<LI>Bagnall, Brian (2005). <I>On the Edge: the Spectacular Rise and Fall of Commodore</I>. Variant Press. <A class=internal href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0973864907">ISBN 0-9738649-0-7</A>.
<LI>Commodore Business Machines, Inc., Computer Systems Division (1982). <I>Commodore 64 Programmer's Reference Guide</I>. Self-published by CBM. <A class=internal href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0672220563">ISBN 0-672-22056-3</A>.
<LI>Angerhausen, M.; Becker, Dr. A.; English, L.; Gerits, K. (1983, 84). <I>The Anatomy of the Commodore 64</I>. Abacus Software (US ed.) / First Publishing Ltd. (UK ed.). <A class=internal href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0948015004">ISBN 0-948015-004</A> (UK ed.). German original edition published by Data Becker GmbH, Düsseldorf.
<LI>Tomczyk, Michael (1984). <I>The Home Computer Wars: An Insider's Account of Commodore and Jack Tramiel</I>. COMPUTE! Publications, Inc. <A class=internal href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0942386752">ISBN 0-942386-75-2</A>. </LI></UL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Commodore 64" href="/w/index.php?title=Commodore_64&action=edit&section=22">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Magazine_articles name=Magazine_articles></A></P>
<H3>Magazine articles</H3>
<UL>
<LI>Perry, Tekla S.; Wallich, Paul. "Design case history: the Commodore 64". <I><A title="IEEE Spectrum" href="/wiki/IEEE_Spectrum">IEEE Spectrum</A></I>. March 1985. <A class="external autonumber" title="http://www.commodore.ca/gallery/magazines/c64 design/c64 design.htm" href="http://www.commodore.ca/gallery/magazines/c64_design/c64_design.htm">[4]</A>
<LI>Jeffries, Ron. "A best buy for '83: Commodore 64". <I><A title="Creative Computing" href="/wiki/Creative_Computing">Creative Computing</A></I>, January 1983. <A class="external autonumber" title="http://www.atarimagazines.com/creative/v9n1/21 A best buy for 83 Commo.php" href="http://www.atarimagazines.com/creative/v9n1/21_A_best_buy_for_83_Commo.php">[5]</A> </LI></UL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Commodore 64" href="/w/index.php?title=Commodore_64&action=edit&section=23">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=External_links name=External_links></A></P>
<H2>External links</H2>
<DIV class="infobox sisterproject">
<DIV class=floatleft><SPAN><A class=image title=" " href="/wiki/Image:Commons-logo.svg"><IMG height=60 alt=" " src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png" width=45 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Commons-logo.svg></A></SPAN></DIV>
<DIV style="MARGIN-LEFT: 60px"><A title="Wikimedia Commons" href="/wiki/Wikimedia_Commons">Wikimedia Commons</A> has media related to:
<DIV style="MARGIN-LEFT: 10px"><I><B><A class=extiw title="commons:Commodore 64" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Commodore_64">Commodore 64</A></B></I></DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Commodore 64" href="/w/index.php?title=Commodore_64&action=edit&section=24">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Emulators name=Emulators></A></P>
<H3>Emulators</H3>
<UL>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.c64s.com/ href="http://www.c64s.com/">c64s.com</A> – Online C64 emulator (Java based).
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.viceteam.org href="http://www.viceteam.org">VICE</A> – The <A title=VICE href="/wiki/VICE">Versatile Commodore Emulator</A>, emulating the C64 and other CBM machines on various operating systems (UNIX, BeOS, Windows, etc.)
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.computerbrains.com/ccs64/ href="http://www.computerbrains.com/ccs64/">CCS64</A> – By Håkan Sundell
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/Park/6558/win64.htm href="http://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/Park/6558/win64.htm">Win64</A> – C64 emulator for MS Windows
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.infinite-loop.at/Power64/index.html href="http://www.infinite-loop.at/Power64/index.html">Power 64</A> – C64 emulator for Mac OS X and OS 9
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://frodo.cebix.net/ href="http://frodo.cebix.net/">Frodo - The free portable C64 emulator</A> </LI></UL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Commodore 64" href="/w/index.php?title=Commodore_64&action=edit&section=25">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Link_portals name=Link_portals></A></P>
<H3>Link portals</H3>
<UL>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.c64s.com/ href="http://www.c64s.com/">c64s.com</A> – A catalogue of C64 titles playable online.
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Systems/Commodore/ href="http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Systems/Commodore/">Open Directory Project</A> – Large collection of Commodore links for emulators, hardware projects and games
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.c64.org/ href="http://www.c64.org/">c64.org</A> – A useful link portal
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.c64.cc/ href="http://www.c64.cc/">Cocos (Commodore Computer Sitelist)</A> – A large directory of C64 + <A title=Demoscene href="/wiki/Demoscene">demoscene</A>-related links
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://del.icio.us/64/ href="http://del.icio.us/64/">del.icio.us/64</A> – The tagged link list for Commodore 64 fans </LI></UL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Commodore 64" href="/w/index.php?title=Commodore_64&action=edit&section=26">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Archives name=Archives></A></P>
<H3>Archives</H3>
<UL>
<LI><A class="external text" title=ftp://ftp.scs-trc.net href="ftp://ftp.scs-trc.net">The Digital Dungeon (TDD)</A> – FTP site full of old and recent C64 software
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.c64.ch/ href="http://www.c64.ch/">www.c64.ch</A> – An archive of C64 demos
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.gamebase64.com/ href="http://www.gamebase64.com/">GameBase 64</A> – C64 game software information site
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.lemon64.com/ href="http://www.lemon64.com/">Lemon 64</A> – Site with general information, game reviews and a forum
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.gtw64.co.uk/ href="http://www.gtw64.co.uk/">Games That Weren't 64</A> – Large project archive dedicated to finding and researching lost C64 games.
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.c64hq.com href="http://www.c64hq.com">C64HQ</A> – Graphically nice site with interviews of famous C64 game creators & sceners, game- and demodownloads and more
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://c64.tin.at/ href="http://c64.tin.at/">C64 Walkthrough Site</A> – Walkthrough and solution archive for C64 adventure games with discussion forum
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://project64.c64.org/ href="http://project64.c64.org/">Project 64</A> – Manuals for C64/128 games and software
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://tapes.c64.no/ href="http://tapes.c64.no/">The Ultimate C64 Tape Page</A> – Large preservation archive of C64 cassettes. Also contains scans of cassette covers and manuals
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.c64db.com/ href="http://www.c64db.com/">The C64 Internet Games Database</A> – over <B>30000</B> entries! After a 64 game? Then find it here!
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.the-commodore-zone.com/ href="http://www.the-commodore-zone.com/">The-Commodore-Zone</A> – Archive of C64 games, speech box, legends of the 64, discussion forum, online databases, links </LI></UL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Commodore 64" href="/w/index.php?title=Commodore_64&action=edit&section=27">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Music name=Music></A></P>
<H3>Music</H3>
<UL>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/Lakes/5147/sidplay/index.html href="http://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/Lakes/5147/sidplay/index.html">SIDPLAY</A> – A <A title=Freeware href="/wiki/Freeware">freeware</A> <A title="MOS Technology SID" href="/wiki/MOS_Technology_SID">SID</A> music player (a "SID chip <A title=Emulator href="/wiki/Emulator">emulator</A>")
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://hvsc.c64.org/ href="http://hvsc.c64.org/">HVSC - High Voltage SID Collection</A> – Large collection of SID files which can be downloaded as a complete archive for use with SIDPLAY
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://c64music.blogspot.com/ href="http://c64music.blogspot.com/">C64 Music</A> – Commodore 64 music in the real world & other related SID stories blog
<LI><A title="Press Play on Tape" href="/wiki/Press_Play_on_Tape">Press Play on Tape</A> – Danish 'C64 revival' band
<LI><A title="Mr. Pacman" href="/wiki/Mr._Pacman">Mr. Pacman</A> – American band that performs C64 covers & re-workings; band member Silver Ghost uses a <A title="Commodore SX-64" href="/wiki/Commodore_SX-64">SX-64</A> as a <A title="Bass (musical term)" href="/wiki/Bass_%28musical_term%29">bass</A> <A title=Synthesizer href="/wiki/Synthesizer">synthesizer</A>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.slayradio.org/ href="http://www.slayradio.org/">SLAY Radio</A> – Radio with live DJs playing Remixes of C64 game and demo music
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://remix.kwed.org/ href="http://remix.kwed.org/">remix.kwed.org</A> – Remixes of C64 game music in <A title=Mp3 href="/wiki/Mp3">mp3</A>-format
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.remix64.com/ href="http://www.remix64.com/">Remix64</A> – Online magazine and community centre for the C64 music remixing scene
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.sidstation.com/ href="http://www.sidstation.com/">Sidstation by Elektron</A> – Swedish company Elektron makes the Sidstation, a <A title=Synthesizer href="/wiki/Synthesizer">synthesizer</A> using the C64 SID chip, with <A title=Midi href="/wiki/Midi">midi</A> support and realtime tweaking
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.treewave.com/ href="http://www.treewave.com/">Tree Wave</A> – American band that creates original and sophisticated music and video using Commodore 64 machines and other 8-bit computers and peripherals, often for live performances.
<LI><A title=Welle:Erdball href="/wiki/Welle:Erdball">Welle:Erdball</A> – German <A title=Bitpop href="/wiki/Bitpop">bitpop</A> group who credit their beefed-up C64 as a band member
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.satellitesrecords.com/artists/c64.htm href="http://www.satellitesrecords.com/artists/c64.htm">Kawasaki Synthesizer & Rhythm Rocker</A> – One of the first standalone(no additional hardware required other than C64/PC itself) music software ever written for personal computer history which became widely accepted and commercially successful. The page is provided by the author <A title="Ryo Kawasaki" href="/wiki/Ryo_Kawasaki">Ryo Kawasaki</A> himself. </LI></UL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Commodore 64" href="/w/index.php?title=Commodore_64&action=edit&section=28">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=History_2 name=History_2></A></P>
<H3>History</H3>
<UL>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/c64hist/ href="http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/c64hist/">Chronology of the Commodore 64 Computer</A> – By Ken Polsson
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.doyouremember.co.uk/memory.asp?memID=4023 href="http://www.doyouremember.co.uk/memory.asp?memID=4023">Commodore 64 memories and memorabilia</A> – Fond memories written by Commodore 64 users
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.pc-history.org/comm.htm href="http://www.pc-history.org/comm.htm">The History of the Commodore 64</A> – From Stan Veit's PC history website
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.dicecca.net/english/c64/ href="http://www.dicecca.net/english/c64/">Commodore 64 Museum</A> – An Italian photo collection of C64s and peripherals
<LI><A class="external text" title="http://www.commodore.ca/products/c64/commodore 64.htm" href="http://www.commodore.ca/products/c64/commodore_64.htm">Commodore 64 history, manuals, and photos</A> – From Canadian-based website www.commodore.ca
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.c64trivia.co.uk/ href="http://www.c64trivia.co.uk/">Commodore Trivia</A> – A great repository of Commodore-related trivia and information </LI></UL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Commodore 64" href="/w/index.php?title=Commodore_64&action=edit&section=29">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Other name=Other></A></P>
<H3>Other</H3>
<UL>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.protovision-online.com href="http://www.protovision-online.com">PROTOVISION - Creating the Future</A> – A crew of enthusiasts who still produce & distribute new games and hardware for the C64
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://rittwage.com/c64pp/ href="http://rittwage.com/c64pp/">The Commodore 64 Preservation Project</A> – With a goal of archiving pristine versions of original Commodore 64 software, including copy protection
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.c64.sk/ href="http://www.c64.sk/">C64.sk</A> – C64 demo scene related news (new releases, parties, etc.)
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.sics.se/~adam/contiki/ href="http://www.sics.se/~adam/contiki/">Contiki</A> – Contiki, an open-source multitasking operating system for the C64 written by Adam Dunkels
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.youtube.com/w/?v=gDT1m-UDVw8 href="http://www.youtube.com/w/?v=gDT1m-UDVw8">- Commodore 64 Commercial (Australia)</A> </LI></UL>
<P><BR style="CLEAR: both"></P>
<CENTER>
<TABLE class=toccolours style="MARGIN: 0px 2em">
<TBODY>
<TR>
<TD style="BACKGROUND: #ccccff" align=middle>
<DIV class=floatright><SPAN><A class=image title="" href="/wiki/Image:CBM_Logo.svg"><IMG height=20 alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/5c/CBM_Logo.svg/20px-CBM_Logo.svg.png" width=20 longDesc=/wiki/Image:CBM_Logo.svg></A></SPAN></DIV><B> <A title="Commodore International" href="/wiki/Commodore_International#Product_line">List of Commodore microcomputers</A></B></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD style="FONT-SIZE: 90%" align=middle>
<P><A title="MOS Technology 6502" href="/wiki/MOS_Technology_6502">MOS Technology 6502</A>-based (<A title=8-bit href="/wiki/8-bit">8-bit</A>): <A title=KIM-1 href="/wiki/KIM-1">MOS/CBM KIM-1</A> | <A title="Commodore PET" href="/wiki/Commodore_PET">PET/CBM</A> | <A title="Commodore CBM-II" href="/wiki/Commodore_CBM-II">CBM-II (aka B/P series)</A> | <A title="Commodore VIC-20" href="/wiki/Commodore_VIC-20">VIC-20/VC-20</A> | <STRONG>C64</STRONG> | <A title="Commodore SX-64" href="/wiki/Commodore_SX-64">SX-64</A> | <A title="Commodore 16" href="/wiki/Commodore_16">C16 & 116</A> | <A title="Commodore Plus/4" href="/wiki/Commodore_Plus/4">Plus/4</A> | <A title="Commodore 128" href="/wiki/Commodore_128">C128</A>
</P>
<P><A title="Motorola 68000" href="/wiki/Motorola_68000">M68K</A>-based (<A title=16-bit href="/wiki/16-bit">16</A>/<A title=32-bit href="/wiki/32-bit">32-bit</A>): <A title="Amiga 1000" href="/wiki/Amiga_1000">Amiga 1000</A> | <A title="Amiga 500" href="/wiki/Amiga_500">Amiga 500</A> | <A title="Amiga 2000" href="/wiki/Amiga_2000">Amiga 2000</A> | <A title="Amiga 500+" href="/wiki/Amiga_500%2B">Amiga 500+</A> | <A title="Amiga 2500" href="/wiki/Amiga_2500">Amiga 2500</A> | <A title="Amiga 3000" href="/wiki/Amiga_3000">Amiga 3000</A>, <A title="Amiga 3000UX" href="/wiki/Amiga_3000UX">UX</A>, <A title="Amiga 3000T" href="/wiki/Amiga_3000T">T</A> | <A title="Amiga 600" href="/wiki/Amiga_600">Amiga 600</A> | <A title="Amiga 1200" href="/wiki/Amiga_1200">Amiga 1200</A> | <A title="Amiga 4000" href="/wiki/Amiga_4000">Amiga 4000</A></P></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE></CENTER>
<P>
<SPAN class=FA id=de style="DISPLAY: none"></SPAN></P>
<P><SPAN class=FA id=it style="DISPLAY: none"></SPAN></P><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:7293-0!1!0!0!!en!2 and timestamp 20060212212128 -->
<DIV class=printfooter>Retrieved from "<A href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_64">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_64</A>"</DIV>
<DIV id=catlinks>
<P class=catlinks><A title=Special:Categories href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Categories&article=Commodore_64">Categories</A>: <SPAN dir=ltr><A title="Category:Commodore 64" href="/wiki/Category:Commodore_64">Commodore 64</A></SPAN> | <SPAN dir=ltr><A title="Category:Home computers" href="/wiki/Category:Home_computers">Home computers</A></SPAN></P></DIV><!-- end content -->
<DIV class=visualClear></DIV><div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/16266475-113978028586061275?l=encyclopediageneral.blogspot.com'/></div>Murat Alperennoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-16266475.post-1139702621837821822006-02-11T16:02:00.000-08:002006-02-11T16:03:41.893-08:00BelgiumBelgium[EXTRACT]From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Belgium (disambiguation).
Kingdom of Belgium
Koninkrijk België
Royaume de Belgique
Königreich Belgien
FlagCoat of arms
Motto: Dutch: Eendracht maakt macht;
French: L'union fait la force;
German: Einigkeit macht stark
(English: "Strength lies in unity")
Anthem: The Brabançonne (The Song of Brabant)
CapitalBrussels
50°54′ N 4°32′ E
Largest cityBrussels
Official language(s)Dutch, French, German
Government
King
Prime MinisterConstitutional Monarchy
Albert II
Guy Verhofstadt
Independence
Belgian Revolution1830
Area
• Total
• Water (%)
30,528 km² (148th)
6.4
Population
• 2005 est.
• 2005 census
• Density
10,445,852 (79th)
10,445,852
342/km² (17th)
GDP (PPP)
• Total
• Per capita2004 estimate
$316.2 billion (30th)
$29,707 (14th)
HDI (2003)0.945 (9th) – high
CurrencyEuro (EUR)
Time zone
• Summer (DST)CET (UTC+1)
CEST (UTC+2)
Internet TLD.be
Calling code+32
The Kingdom of Belgium (Dutch: Koninkrijk België; French: Royaume de Belgique; German: Königreich Belgien) is a country in northwest Europe bordered by the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg and France. Belgium has a population of over ten million people in an area of thirty thousand square kilometres. Straddling the cultural boundary between Germanic and Romance Europe, it is both linguistically and culturally divided. Two major languages are spoken in Belgium: Dutch—sometimes unofficially called Flemish—spoken in Flanders to the north; and French, spoken in Wallonia in the south. The capital, Brussels, is officially bilingual, while the majority of its residents speaks French. An officially recognized minority of German speakers is present in the east. This linguistic diversity often leads to political conflict, and is reflected in Belgium's complex system of government and political history.
Belgium derives its name from its first named inhabitants, the Belgae, a group of mostly Celtic tribes, and from the Roman province in northern Gaul, known as Gallia Belgica. Historically, Belgium has been a part of the Low Countries, which also includes the Netherlands and Luxembourg. From the end of the Middle Ages until the seventeenth century, it was a prosperous center of commerce and culture. From the sixteenth century until independence in 1830, Belgium, called at that time the Southern Netherlands, was the site of many battles between the European powers, and has been dubbed "the Cockpit of Europe."[1] More recently, Belgium was a founding member of the European Union, hosting its headquarters, as well as those of other major international organisations, such as NATO.
Contents [hide]
1 History
2 Politics
3 Communities and regions
4 Geography
5 Economy
6 Demographics
7 Culture
8 See also
9 External links
10 References
11 Notes
[edit]History
Main article: History of Belgium
Over the past two millennia, the area that is now known as Belgium has seen significant demographic, political and cultural upheavals. The first well-documented population move was the conquest of the region by the Roman Republic in the 1st century BC, followed in the 5th century by the Germanic Franks. The Franks established the Merovingian kingdom, which became the Carolingian Empire in the 8th century. During the Middle Ages, the Low Countries were split into many small feudal states. Most of them were united in the course of the 14th and 15th centuries by the house of Burgundy as the Burgundian Netherlands. These states gained a degree of autonomy in the 15th century and were thereafter named the Seventeen Provinces.
The Seventeen Provinces (orange, brown and yellow areas) and the Bishopric of Liège (green area). For a detailed description, see Seventeen Provinces.
Episode of the Belgian Revolution of 1830, Egide Charles Gustave Wappers (1834), in the Musée d'Art Ancien, Brussels
The history of Belgium can be distinguished from that of the Low Countries from the 16th century. A civil war, the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648), divided the Seventeen Provinces into the United Provinces in the north and the Southern Netherlands in the south. The southern provinces were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs. Until independence, the Southern Netherlands were sought after by numerous French conquerors and were the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. Following the Campaigns of 1794 in the French Revolutionary Wars, the Low Countries—including territories that were never under Habsburg rule, such the Bishopric of Liège—were overrun by France, ending Spanish-Austrian rule in the region. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the end of the French Empire in 1815.
The 1830 Belgian Revolution led to the establishment of an independent, Catholic and neutral Belgium under a provisional government. Since the installation of Leopold I as king in 1831, Belgium has been a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy. Between independence and World War II, the democratic system evolved from an oligarchy characterised by two main parties, the Catholics and the Liberals, to a universal suffrage system that has included a third party, the Belgian Labour Party, and a strong role for the trade unions. Originally, French, which was the adopted language of the nobility and the bourgeoisie was the official language. The country has since developed a bilingual Dutch-French system.
The Berlin Conference of 1885 agreed to hand over Congo to King Leopold II as his private possession, called the Congo Free State. In 1908, it was ceded to Belgium as a colony, henceforth called the Belgian Congo. Belgium's neutrality was violated in 1914, when Germany invaded Belgium as part of the Schlieffen Plan. The former German colonies Ruanda-Urundi—now called Rwanda and Burundi—were occupied by the Belgian Congo in 1916. They were mandated in 1924 to Belgium by the League of Nations. Belgium was again invaded by Germany in 1940 during the blitzkrieg offensive. The Belgian Congo gained its independence on 30 July 1960 during the Congo Crisis, and Ruanda-Urundi became independent in 1962.
After World War II, Belgium joined NATO and, together with the Netherlands and Luxembourg, formed the Benelux group of nations. Belgium was also one of the founding members of the European Economic Community. Belgium hosts the headquarters of NATO and a major part of the European Union's institutions and administrations, including the European Commission, the Council of the European Union and most of the sessions of the European Parliament. During the 20th century, and in particular since World War II, the history of Belgium has been increasingly dominated by the autonomy of its two main language communities. This period saw a rise in intercommunal tensions, and the unity of the Belgian state has come under scrutiny.[2] Through constitutional reforms in the 1970s and 1980s, regionalisation of the unitary state had led to the establishment of a three-tiered system of federalism, linguistic-community and regional governments, a compromise designed to minimise linguistic tensions. Nowadays, these federal entities uphold more legislative power than the national bicameral parliament.
[edit]Politics
Main article: Politics of Belgium
Guy Verhofstadt, Prime Minister since July 1999Belgium is a constitutional popular monarchy and parliamentary democracy that evolved after World War II from a unitary state to a federation. The bicameral parliament is composed of a Senate and a Chamber of Representatives. The former is a mix of directly elected senior politicians and representatives of the communities and regions; while the latter represents all Belgians over the age of eighteen in a proportional voting system. Belgium is one of the few countries that has compulsory voting, thus having one of the highest rates of voter turnout in the world.[3]
The federal government, formally nominated by the king, must have the confidence of the Chamber of Representatives. It is led by the Prime Minister. The numbers of Dutch- and French-speaking ministers are equal as prescribed by the Constitution.[4] The King or Queen is the head of state, though he has limited prerogatives. Actual power is vested in the Prime Minister and the different governments, who govern the country. The judicial system is based on civil law and originates from the Napoleonic code. The Court of Appeals is one level below the Court of Cassation, an institution based on the French Court of Cassation.
Belgium's political institutions are complex; most political power is organised around the need to represent the main language communities. Since around 1970, the significant national Belgian political parties has split into distinct components that mainly represent the interests of these communities. The major parties in each community belong to three main political families: the right-wing Liberals, the centrist Christian Democrats, and the left-wing Social Democrats. Other important younger parties are the Green parties and, especially in Flanders, the nationalist and far-right parties. Politics is influenced by lobby groups, such as trade unions and business interests in the form of the Federation of Enterprises in Belgium.
Albert II, King of the BelgiansThe current king, Albert II, succeeded King Baudouin in 1993. In 1999, Prime Minister Guy Verhofstadt from the VLD has led a six-party Liberal-Social Democrat-Greens coalition, often referred to as 'the rainbow government'. This was the first government without the Christian Democrats since 1958.[5] In the 2003 elections, Verhofstadt won a second term in office and has led a Liberal-Social Democrat coalition of four parties.[6] More recently however, the steady rise of the Flemish ultra-right nationalist separatist party Vlaams Belang, has superseded the Vlaams Blok amidst concerns of racism promoted by the party. [7][8]
A significant achievement of the two successive Verhofstadt governments has been the achievement of a balanced budget; Belgium is one of the few member-states of the EU to have done so. This policy was applied by the successive governments during the 1990s under pressure from the European Council. The fall of the previous government was mainly due to the dioxin crisis,[9] a major food intoxication scandal in 1999 that led to the establishment of the Belgian Food Agency.[10] This event resulted in an atypically large representation by the Greens in parliament, and a greater emphasis on environmental politics during the first Verhofstadt government. One Green policy, for example, resulted in nuclear phase-out legislation, which has been modified by the current government. The absence of Christian Democrats from the ranks of the government has enabled Verhofstadt to tackle social issues from a more liberal point of view and to develop new legislation on the use of soft drugs, same-sex marriage and euthanasia. During the two most recent parliaments, the government has promoted active diplomacy in Africa,[11] opposed a military intervention during the Iraq disarmament crisis, and has passed legislation concerning war crimes. Both of Verhofstadt's terms have been marked by disputes between the Belgian communities. The major points of contention are the nocturnal air traffic routes at Brussels Airport and the status of the electoral district of Brussels-Halle-Vilvoorde.
See also: list of Belgian monarchs, Belgian federal parliament, Belgian federal government, list of Belgian Prime Ministers, and Political parties in Belgium
[edit]Communities and regions
Main article: Communities, regions and provinces of Belgium
Belgium is composed of the five northern Dutch-speaking provinces of Flanders, the five southern French-speaking provinces of Wallonia (the German-speaking Community is located in the province of Liège along the German border) and the bilingual Capital Region of Brussels. The boundary between these regions is marked in red.The country's constitution was revised on 14 July 1993 to create a unique federal state, based on three levels:
The federal government, based in Brussels.
The three language communities:
the Flemish (i.e., Dutch-speaking) Community;
the French (i.e., French-speaking) Community; and
the German-speaking Community.
The three regions (which differ from the language communities with respect to the German-speaking community and the Brussels region):
the Flemish Region;
the Walloon Region; and
the Brussels-Capital Region.
Conflicts between the bodies are resolved by the Court of Arbitration. The setup allows a compromise so distinctly different cultures can live together peacefully.
The Flemish Community absorbed the Flemish Region in 1980 to form the government of Flanders[12]. The overlapping boundaries of the Regions and Communities have created two notable peculiarities: the territory of the Brussels-Capital Region is included in both Flemish and French Communities, and the territory of the German-speaking Community lies wholly within the Walloon Region. Flemish and Walloon regions are furthermore subdivided in administrative entities, the provinces.
At the highest level of this three-tiered setup is the federal government which manages foreign affairs, development aid, defence, military, police, economic management, social welfare, social security transport, energy, telecommunications, and scientific research, limited competencies in education and culture, and the supervision of taxation by regional authorities. The federal government controls more than 90 per cent of all taxation. The community governments are responsible for the promotion of language, culture and education in mostly schools, libraries and theatres. The third tier is the Regional governments, who manage mostly land and property based issues such as housing, transportation etc. For example, the building permit for a school building in Brussels belonging to the public school system would be regulated by the regional government of Brussels. However, the school as an institution would fall under the regulations of the Flemish government if the primary language of teaching is Dutch, but under the French Community government if the primary language is French.
[edit]Geography
Main article: Geography of Belgium
Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, Charleroi, Liège, Bruges and Namur are the seven largest cities of Belgium, with populations above 100,000Belgium, with an area of 30,528 km², has three main geographical regions: the coastal plain in the north-west, the central plateau, and the Ardennes uplands in the south-east. The coastal plain consists mainly of sand dunes and polders. Polders are areas of land, close to or below sea level that have been reclaimed from the sea, from which they are protected by dikes or, further inland, by fields that have been drained with canals. The second geographical region, the central plateau, lies further inland. This is a smooth, slowly rising area that has many fertile valleys and is irrigated by many waterways. Here one can also find rougher land, including caves and small gorges.
Landscape in the Hautes Fagnes, in the ArdennesThe third geographical region, called the Ardennes, is more rugged than the first two. It is a thickly forested plateau, very rocky and not very good for farming, which extends into northern France. This is where much of Belgium's wildlife can be found. Belgium's highest point, the Signal de Botrange is located in this region at only 694 metres.
The climate is maritime temperate, with significant precipitation in all seasons (Köppen climate classification: Cfb; the average temperature is 3°C in January, and 18°C in July; the average precipitation is 65 mm in January, and 78 mm in July).[13]
[edit]Economy
Main article: Economy of Belgium
Densely populated, Belgium is located at the heart of one of the world's most highly industrialised regions.
Steelmaking along the Meuse at Ougrée, near Liège.Belgium was the first continental European country to undergo the Industrial Revolution, in the early 1800s. Liège and Charleroi rapidly developed mining and steelmaking, which flourished until the mid-20th century. However, by the 1840s the textile industry of Flanders was in severe crisis and there was famine in Flanders (1846–50). After World War II, Ghent and Antwerp experienced a fast expansion of the chemical and petroleum industries. The 1973 and 1979 oil crises sent the economy into a prolonged recession. The Belgian steel industry has since experienced serious decline. This has been responsible for inhibiting the economic development of Wallonia.[14] In the 1980s and 90s, the economic centre of the country continued to shift northwards to Flanders. Nowadays, industry is concentrated in the populous Flemish area in the north.
By the end of the 1980s, Belgian macroeconomic policies had resulted in a cumulative government debt of about 120% of GDP. Currently, although the government has recently succeeded in balancing its budget, public debt is nearly 100% of GDP.[15] In 2004, the real growth rate of GDP was estimated at 2.7% [16] but is expected to fall to 1.3% in 2005.[17]
Belgium has a particularly open economy. It has developed an excellent transportation infrastructure of ports, canals, railways and highways to integrate its industry with that of its neighbours. Antwerp is the second-largest European port. One of the founding members of the European Union, Belgium strongly supports the extension of the powers of EU institutions to integrate the member economies. In 1999, Belgium adopted the euro, the single European currency, which replaced the Belgian franc in 2002. The Belgian economy is strongly oriented towards foreign trade, in particular of high value-added goods. The main imports are food products, machinery, rough diamonds, petroleum and petroleum products, chemicals, clothing and accessories, and textiles. The main exports are automobiles, food and food products, iron and steel, finished diamonds, textiles, plastics, petroleum products, and nonferrous metals. Since 1922, Belgium and Luxembourg have been a single trade market within a customs and currency union—the Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union. Its main trading partners are Germany, the Netherlands, France, the United Kingdom, Italy, the United States and Spain. Belgium ranks ninth on the 2005 United Nations Human Development Index.
[edit]Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Belgium
The population density (342 per km²) is one of the highest in Europe, after the Netherlands and some smaller countries such as Monaco. The areas with the highest population density are around the Brussels-Antwerp-Ghent-Leuven agglomerations, also known as the Flemish Diamond, as well as other important urban centres as Liège, Charleroi, Kortrijk, Bruges, Hasselt and Namur. The Ardennes have the lowest density. As of 2005, the Flemish Region has a population of about 6,043,161, Wallonia 3,395,942 and Brussels 1,006,749.[18] Almost all of the population is urban (97.3% in 1999[19]). The main cities and their populations are Brussels (1,006,749), Antwerp (457,749), Ghent (230,951), Charleroi (201,373), and Liège (185,574).[20]
Basilica of the Sacred Heart, Brussels. The basilica is the National Basilica of Belgium. It stands as a symbol of the historical link between the Belgian monarchy and the Catholic Church.About 60% of the country is Dutch-speaking, 40% French-speaking, and 1% German-speaking. However, these figures must be interpreted cautiously, because the most recent linguistic census was taken before 1960, and the mother tongue is not always the same as the language used in public or in official life. Brussels is officially French-Dutch bilingual, but mostly French speaking; it evolved from a Dutch-speaking place to its current dominantly French character when the Belgian state became independent in 1830.
Both the Dutch spoken in Belgium and the Belgian French have minor differences in vocabulary and semantic nuances from the varieties spoken in France and the Netherlands. Many people can still speak dialects of Flemish and Walloon. These dialects, along with some other ones like Picard or Limburgish,[21] are not used in public life.
The laïque constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respects this right in practice. According to the 2001 Survey and Study of Religion,[22] about 47% of the population identify themselves as belonging to the Catholic Church. According to these figures, the Muslim population is the second largest religious community, at 3.5% (see Religion in Belgium). Since independence, Catholicism, counterbalanced by strong freethought and especially freemason movements, has had an important role in Belgium's politics, in particular via the Christian trade union (CSC/ACV) and the Christian Democrat parties (CD&V, CDH).
The vast majority of Belgians are Flemish and Walloon. Together, they constitute a little over 85%. There are many other European populations who constitute a large and growing fraction like Italian, French, and German (majorities) who number 11.1%. Arab immigrants, mostly from Morocco and Algeria, and Turkish immigrants number over 3% of the total population.
98% of the adult population is literate.[23] Education is compulsory from the ages of six to 18, but many Belgians continue to study until the age of about 23. Among the OECD countries in 1999, Belgium had the third highest proportion of 18–21-year-olds enrolled in postsecondary education, at 42%.[24] Nevertheless, in recent years, concern is rising over certain forms of illiteracy, such as functional illiteracy. In the period 1994–98, 18.4% of the population lacks functional literacy skills.[25] Mirroring the historical political conflicts between the freethought and Catholic segments of the population, the Belgian educational system in each communities is split into a laïque branch controlled by the communities, the provinces, or the municipalities, and a subsidised religious—mostly Catholic—branch controlled by both the communities and the religious authorities—usually the dioceses. It should however be noted that - at least for the Catholic schools - the religious authorities have very limited power over these schools.
[edit]Culture
Main article: Culture of Belgium
Belgian cultural life has tended to concentrate within each community. The shared element is less important, because there are no bilingual universities, except the royal military academy, no common media, and no single, common large cultural or scientific organisation where both main communities are represented. Aside from these differences, Belgium is well-known for its fine art and architecture.
The region corresponding to today's Belgium has seen the flourishing of major artistic movements that have had tremendous influence over European art. The Mosan art, the Early Netherlandish, the Flemish Renaissance and Baroque painting, and major examples of Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque architecture, and the Renaissance vocal music of the Dutch School developed in the southern part of the Low Countries, are milestones in the history of art.
The Entry of Christ into Brussels, James Ensor, 1888, Malibu. This painting is inspired by the many folk festivals in Belgium.This rich artistic production, often referred to as a whole as Flemish art, gradually declined during the second half of the 17th century. However, in the 19th and 20th centuries, many original artists appeared. In music, Adolphe Sax invented the saxophone in 1846. Eugène Ysaÿe was a major 19th- and 20th-century Belgian violinist (See also Music of Belgium). In architecture, Victor Horta was a major initiator of the Art Nouveau style. Belgium has produced famous romantic, expressionist and surrealist painters; these include Egide Wappers, James Ensor, Constant Permeke and René Magritte. In literature, Belgium has produced several well-known authors, such as the poets Emile Verhaeren, Jacques Brel and novelists Hendrik Conscience and Georges Simenon. The poet and playwright Maurice Maeterlinck won the Nobel Prize in literature in 1911. The best known Franco-Belgian comics are The Adventures of Tintin by Hergé but many other major authors of comics have been Belgian, including Edgar P. Jacobs and André Franquin.
More recently, notable cinema directors have emerged, most of them strongly influenced by French cinema. The absence of a major Belgian cinema company has forced them to emigrate or participate in low-budget productions. Belgian directors include Stijn Coninx, Luc and Jean-Pierre Dardenne; actors include Jan Decleir, Marie Gillain; and films include Man Bites Dog and The Alzheimer Affair. In the 1980s, Antwerp's Royal Academy of Fine Arts has produced the important fashion trendsetters, the Antwerp Six.
Belgium has also contributed to the development of science and technology. The mathematician Simon Stevin, the anatomist Andreas Vesalius and the cartographer Gerardus Mercator are among the most influential scientists from the beginning of Early Modern in the Low Countries. More recently, at the end of the 19th century, in applied science, the chemist Ernest Solvay and the engineer Zenobe Gramme have given their names to the Solvay process and the Gramme dynamo. Georges Lemaître is a famous Belgian cosmologist credited with proposing the Big Bang theory of the origin of the universe in 1927. Three Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine have been awarded to Belgians: Jules Bordet in 1919, Corneille Heymans in 1938, and Albert Claude and Christian De Duve in 1974. Ilya Prigogine was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1977.
On December 1, 2005, Father Damien was chosen as the Greatest Belgian of all time by the Flemish VRT, whereas the Walloons chose Jacques Brel.
One could not understand Belgian cultural life without considering the folk festivals, which play a major role in the country's cultural life. Examples are the Carnival of Binche, the Ducasse of Ath, the procession of the Holy Blood in Bruges, the 15th-of-August festival in Liège, and the Walloon festival in Namur. A major non-official holiday is the Saint Nicholas Day, which commemorates the festival of the children and, in Liège, of the students.
Belgium is well represented in the world of sport—football (soccer) and cycling are especially popular. The national football team is the Red Devils. Among the well known cyclists, Eddy Merckx, won five Tours de France. Belgium also has two current female tennis champions: Kim Clijsters and Justine Henin-Hardenne.
Many highly ranked restaurants can be found in the high-impact gastronomic guides, such as the Michelin Guide. Brands of Belgian chocolate, like Neuhaus, are world renowned and widely sold; even the cheapest and most popular brand, Leonidas, has earned a reputation for its quality. Belgium produces over 500 varieties of beer (ales, pils) (see Belgian beer). Belgians have a reputation for loving waffles and French fries, both originally from Belgium; the national food is steak (or mussels) with French fries.
[edit]See also
Find more information on Belgium by searching one of Wikipedia's sister projects:
Dictionary definitions from Wiktionary
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Quotations from Wikiquote
Source texts from Wikisource
Images and media from Commons
News stories from WikinewsCommunications in Belgium
Education in Belgium
Football in Belgium
Foreign relations of Belgium
List of Belgian municipalities by population
List of Belgians
List of Belgium-related topics
Military of Belgium
Public holidays in Belgium
Tourism in Belgium
Transportation in Belgium
[edit]External links
Official site of the Belgian federal government
Official site of Belgian tourist office
Telephone directory online
Belgian Newspapers
Travel guide to Belgium from Wikitravel
Belgium is celebrating the 175th anniversary of its independence and the 25th anniversary of the federal state
bruessel-gui.de - Images: Brussels & Belgium
[edit]References
World history at KLMA
L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde in French by Jacques Leclerc, University of Laval, Canada
Portal of the INS to statistical publications about Belgium
CIA World Fact Book
Constitution of Belgium
[edit]Notes
1.^ Nuttall encyclopedia
2.^ Language dispute divides Belgium, BBC News, 13 May, 2005
3.^ Election turnout in national lower house elections from 1960 to 1995, numbers from Mark N. Franklin's "Electoral Participation."
4.^ Constitution of Belgium Art. 99
5.^ Belgium's "rainbow" coalition sworn in, BBC News, 12 July, 1999
6.^ Composition of the Chamber of Representatives, on the official homepage of the Chamber, in French
7.^ Court says Vlaams Blok conviction is sound, Expatriate Online, 10 November, 2004
8.^ Court rules Vlaams Blok is racist, BBC News, 9 November, 2004
9.^ Dioxin contamination scandal hits Belgium: Effects spread through European Union and beyond, World Socialist Web Site, 8 June, 1999
10.^ History of the Federal Food Agency, at its official homepage
11.^ The Rwanda article at Tiscali.References shows an example of Belgium's recent African policies.
12.^ The official homepage of Flanders (Community and Region)
13.^ Eurometeo: The meteo at Brussels
14-15.^ US Department of State's report
16.^ National Bank of Belgium
17.^ Economic forecast of the Economist, 30 September, 2005
18,20.^ Official statistics of Belgium
19,24.^ United Nation Development Programme
21-22.^ Ethnologue.com published by SIL International
23.^ Digest of Education Satistics 2003, US National Education Statistics
25.^ International Religious Freedom Report 2004 at the US Department of State
European Union
Austria | Belgium | Cyprus | Czech Republic | Denmark | Estonia | Finland | France | Germany | Greece | Hungary | Ireland | Italy | Latvia | Lithuania | Luxembourg | Malta | Netherlands | Poland | Portugal | Slovakia | Slovenia | Spain | Sweden | United Kingdom
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)
Belgium | Bulgaria | Canada | Czech Republic | Denmark | Estonia | France | Germany | Greece | Hungary | Iceland | Italy | Latvia | Lithuania | Luxembourg | The Netherlands | Norway | Poland | Portugal | Romania | Slovakia | Slovenia | Spain | Turkey | United Kingdom | United States of America
Countries in Europe
Albania | Andorra | Armenia | Austria | Azerbaijan | Belarus | Belgium | Bosnia and Herzegovina | Bulgaria | Croatia | Cyprus | Czech Republic | Denmark | Estonia | Finland | France | Georgia | Germany | Greece | Hungary | Iceland | Ireland | Italy | Kazakhstan | Latvia | Liechtenstein | Lithuania | Luxembourg | Macedonia | Malta | Moldova | Monaco | Netherlands | Norway | Poland | Portugal | Romania | Russia | San Marino | Serbia and Montenegro | Slovakia | Slovenia | Spain | Sweden | Switzerland | Turkey | Ukraine | United Kingdom | Vatican City
Other territories: Akrotiri and Dhekelia | Faroe Islands | Gibraltar | Guernsey | Jan Mayen | Jersey | Isle of Man | Svalbard
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium"
Category: Belgium<div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/16266475-113970262183782182?l=encyclopediageneral.blogspot.com'/></div>Murat Alperennoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-16266475.post-1139559732112178602006-02-10T00:20:00.000-08:002006-02-11T03:37:10.353-08:00Internet Explorer<!-- start content -->
<TABLE class=infobox style="FONT-SIZE: 90%; WIDTH: 21em; TEXT-ALIGN: left" cellSpacing=2>
<TBODY>
<TR>
<TH style="FONT-SIZE: larger; TEXT-ALIGN: center" colSpan=2><A class=image title="Windows Internet Explorer logo" href="/wiki/Image:Blue_E.png"><IMG height=45 alt="Windows Internet Explorer logo" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9f/Blue_E.png/46px-Blue_E.png" width=46 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Blue_E.png></A> Internet Explorer</TH></TR>
<TR class=image>
<TD style="TEXT-ALIGN: center" colSpan=2><A class=image title="" href="/wiki/Image:Internet_Explorer_6.png"><IMG height=173 alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e8/Internet_Explorer_6.png/250px-Internet_Explorer_6.png" width=250 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Internet_Explorer_6.png></A>
Internet Explorer 6 under Windows XP</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TH><A title="Software maintenance" href="/wiki/Software_maintenance">Maintainer</A>:</TH>
<TD><A title=Microsoft href="/wiki/Microsoft">Microsoft</A>, <A title=Spyglass href="/wiki/Spyglass">Spyglass</A></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TH><A title="Software release" href="/wiki/Software_release">Latest release</A>:</TH>
<TD>6.0 SP 2 / August 6, 2004</TD></TR>
<TR class="external text">
<TH><A title="Software release" href="/wiki/Software_release">Preview release</A>:</TH>
<TD><A class="external text" title=http://www.microsoft.com/windows/IE/ie7/ie7betaredirect.mspx href="http://www.microsoft.com/windows/IE/ie7/ie7betaredirect.mspx">7.0 Beta 2 Preview</A> (build 5296) / January 31, 2006</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TH><A title="Operating system" href="/wiki/Operating_system">OS</A>:</TH>
<TD><A title="Microsoft Windows" href="/wiki/Microsoft_Windows">Windows</A></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TH><A title="Software genre" href="/wiki/Software_genre">Genre</A>:</TH>
<TD><A title="Web browser" href="/wiki/Web_browser">Web browser</A></TD></TR>
<TR class=hiddenStructure>
<TH><A title="Software licence" href="/wiki/Software_licence">Licence</A>:</TH>
<TD></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TH><A title="Software license" href="/wiki/Software_license">License</A>:</TH>
<TD>Closed source</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TH><A title=Website href="/wiki/Website">Website</A>:</TH>
<TD><A class="external text" title=http://www.microsoft.com/windows/ie/ href="http://www.microsoft.com/windows/ie/">Internet Explorer</A></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE>
<P><B>Internet Explorer</B>, abbreviated <B>IE</B> or <B>MSIE</B>, is a <A title="Proprietary software" href="/wiki/Proprietary_software">proprietary</A> <A title="Graphical user interface" href="/wiki/Graphical_user_interface">graphical</A> <A title="Web browser" href="/wiki/Web_browser">web browser</A> made by <A title=Microsoft href="/wiki/Microsoft">Microsoft</A> and currently available as part of <A title="Microsoft Windows" href="/wiki/Microsoft_Windows">Microsoft Windows</A>. Internet Explorer is the most widely used web browser today, although since 2004 it has been losing <A title="Usage share of web browsers" href="/wiki/Usage_share_of_web_browsers">usage share</A> to other browsers. As of <A title="October 2005" href="/wiki/October_2005">October 2005</A>, IE's usage share is about 85% (see the <A title="" href="#Market_adoption">market adoption</A> section).</P>
<P>Internet Explorer is an integrated component of all current versions of Microsoft Windows. Microsoft has shipped Internet Explorer as the default browser in all versions of Microsoft Windows since <A title="Windows 95" href="/wiki/Windows_95">Windows 95</A> OSR1. The last major upgrade to Internet Explorer was included in <A title="Windows XP" href="/wiki/Windows_XP">Windows XP</A> Service Pack 2, but is not available for older versions of Windows. The <A title="Software beta" href="/wiki/Software_beta">beta version</A> of Internet Explorer 7 for Windows XP SP2 has been available since <A title="July 27" href="/wiki/July_27">July 27</A>, <A title=2005 href="/wiki/2005">2005</A>.</P>
<P>Internet Explorer is available as a separate download for many older versions of Windows. In the past it was also developed for several other operating systems: <A title="Internet Explorer for Mac" href="/wiki/Internet_Explorer_for_Mac">Internet Explorer for Mac</A> and <A title="Internet Explorer for UNIX" href="/wiki/Internet_Explorer_for_UNIX">Internet Explorer for UNIX</A> (the latter for use through the <A title="X Window System" href="/wiki/X_Window_System">X Window System</A> on <A title="Solaris Operating Environment" href="/wiki/Solaris_Operating_Environment">Solaris</A> and <A title=HP-UX href="/wiki/HP-UX">HP-UX</A>). All of these versions have ceased active development.</P>
<P>Internet Explorer is currently known as <B>Microsoft Internet Explorer</B>, but the name will change to <B>Windows Internet Explorer</B> with the release of Internet Explorer 7.</P>
<TABLE class=toc id=toc summary=Contents>
<TBODY>
<TR>
<TD>
<DIV id=toctitle>
<H2>Contents</H2> <SPAN class=toctoggle>[<A class=internal id=togglelink href="javascript:toggleToc()">hide</A>]</SPAN></DIV>
<UL>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#History"><SPAN class=tocnumber>1</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>History</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Features"><SPAN class=tocnumber>2</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Features</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Component_architecture"><SPAN class=tocnumber>2.1</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Component architecture</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Usability_and_accessibility"><SPAN class=tocnumber>2.2</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Usability and accessibility</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Security_framework"><SPAN class=tocnumber>2.3</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Security framework</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Standards_support"><SPAN class=tocnumber>2.4</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Standards support</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Proprietary_extensions"><SPAN class=tocnumber>2.5</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Proprietary extensions</SPAN></A> </LI></UL>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Version_7.0"><SPAN class=tocnumber>3</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Version 7.0</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Criticisms"><SPAN class=tocnumber>4</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Criticisms</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Market_adoption"><SPAN class=tocnumber>5</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Market adoption</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Usage_share"><SPAN class=tocnumber>5.1</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Usage share</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Industry_adoption"><SPAN class=tocnumber>5.2</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Industry adoption</SPAN></A> </LI></UL>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#.22Standalone.22_Internet_Explorer"><SPAN class=tocnumber>6</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>"Standalone" Internet Explorer</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Removal"><SPAN class=tocnumber>7</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Removal</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Footnotes"><SPAN class=tocnumber>8</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Footnotes</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#References"><SPAN class=tocnumber>9</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>References</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#See_also"><SPAN class=tocnumber>10</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>See also</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#External_links"><SPAN class=tocnumber>11</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>External links</SPAN></A> </LI></UL></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE>
<P>
<SCRIPT type=text/javascript>
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</SCRIPT>
</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Internet Explorer" href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_Explorer&action=edit&section=1">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=History name=History></A></P>
<H2>History</H2>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 182px"><A class=internal title="Internet Explorer 4.0 under Windows" href="/wiki/Image:Internet_Explorer_4.png"><IMG height=127 alt="Internet Explorer 4.0 under Windows" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/3/39/Internet_Explorer_4.png/180px-Internet_Explorer_4.png" width=180 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Internet_Explorer_4.png></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Internet_Explorer_4.png"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Internet Explorer 4.0 under Windows</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DL>
<DD><I>Main article: <A title="History of Internet Explorer" href="/wiki/History_of_Internet_Explorer">History of Internet Explorer</A></I> </DD></DL>
<P>Internet Explorer is derived from <A title=Spyglass href="/wiki/Spyglass">Spyglass</A> <A title="Mosaic (web browser)" href="/wiki/Mosaic_%28web_browser%29">Mosaic</A>, an early commercial web browser. In 1995, Spyglass Mosaic was licensed by <A title=Microsoft href="/wiki/Microsoft">Microsoft</A> in an arrangement under which Spyglass would receive a quarterly fee plus a percentage of Microsoft's revenues for the software. Although bearing a name similar to <A title="National Center for Supercomputing Applications" href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Supercomputing_Applications">NCSA</A> Mosaic, which was the first widely used browser, Spyglass Mosaic was relatively unknown in its day and did not use any of the NCSA Mosaic source code <SPAN class=reference><SUP class=plainlinksneverexpand id=ref_SpyglassMosaic><A class="external autonumber" title="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet Explorer#endnote SpyglassMosaic" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Explorer#endnote_SpyglassMosaic">[1]</A></SUP></SPAN>.</P>
<P>Internet Explorer 3 was the first major browser with <A title="Cascading Style Sheets" href="/wiki/Cascading_Style_Sheets">CSS</A> support released in August, 1996 and it could handle the <A title="Platform for Internet Content Selection" href="/wiki/Platform_for_Internet_Content_Selection">PICS</A> system for content <A title=Metadata href="/wiki/Metadata">metadata</A>. The improvements were significant, compared to its main competitor at the time, <A title="Netscape Navigator" href="/wiki/Netscape_Navigator">Netscape Navigator</A>.</P>
<P>The browser was not widely used until version 4, which was released in October 1997 and was integrated with the <A title="Windows 98" href="/wiki/Windows_98">Windows 98</A> operating system. This integration, however, was subject to numerous criticisms (see <A title="United States v. Microsoft" href="/wiki/United_States_v._Microsoft">United States v. Microsoft</A>). Version 5, released in September 1998, was another significant release that supported <A title="Bi-directional text" href="/wiki/Bi-directional_text">bi-directional text</A>, <A title="Ruby character" href="/wiki/Ruby_character">ruby characters</A>, <A title=XML href="/wiki/XML">XML</A> and <A title="Extensible Stylesheet Language" href="/wiki/Extensible_Stylesheet_Language">XSL</A>.</P>
<P>Version 6 was released on <A title="August 27" href="/wiki/August_27">August 27</A>, <A title=2001 href="/wiki/2001">2001</A>, a few weeks before <A title="Windows XP" href="/wiki/Windows_XP">Windows XP</A>. This version included DHTML enhancements, content restricted inline frames, and better support of CSS level 1, DOM level 1 and SMIL 2.0. The MSXML engine was also updated to version 3.0. Other new features included a new version of the IEAK, Media bar, <A title="Windows Messenger" href="/wiki/Windows_Messenger">Windows Messenger</A> integration, fault collection, automatic image resizing, <A title=P3P href="/wiki/P3P">P3P</A>, and a new look-and-feel that is in line with the style of Windows XP.</P>
<P>On <A title="February 15" href="/wiki/February_15">February 15</A>, <A title=2005 href="/wiki/2005">2005</A>, Microsoft Chairman <A title="Bill Gates" href="/wiki/Bill_Gates">Bill Gates</A> announced that the new version of its browser will be released at the RSA Conference 2005 in San Francisco <SPAN class=reference><SUP class=plainlinksneverexpand id=ref_RSAConference2005><A class="external autonumber" title="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet Explorer#endnote RSAConference2005" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Explorer#endnote_RSAConference2005">[2]</A></SUP></SPAN>. The decision to update the browser occurred in the wake of a decline in the use of Internet Explorer for the first time. Microsoft also stated that Internet Explorer 7 will only be available for Windows XP SP2 and later, including Windows Server 2003 SP1 and Windows Vista. The first <A title="Software beta" href="/wiki/Software_beta">beta version</A> of the browser was released on <A title="July 27" href="/wiki/July_27">July 27</A>, <A title=2005 href="/wiki/2005">2005</A> for technical testing, and a first public preview version of Internet Explorer 7 (Beta 2 preview) was released on <A title="January 31" href="/wiki/January_31">January 31</A>, <A title=2006 href="/wiki/2006">2006</A>. Verison 7 is intended to defend users from <A title=Phishing href="/wiki/Phishing">phishing</A> as well as deceptive or malicious software, and also features full user control of ActiveX, and better security framework. It includes important bug fixes, enhancements to support the web standards, improvements in HTML 4.01/CSS 2, <A title="Tabbed document interface" href="/wiki/Tabbed_document_interface">Tabbed Browsing</A>, Tab preview/ management, and web feeds reader.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Internet Explorer" href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_Explorer&action=edit&section=2">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Features name=Features></A></P>
<H2>Features</H2>
<DL>
<DD><I>Main article: <A title="Features of Internet Explorer" href="/wiki/Features_of_Internet_Explorer">Features of Internet Explorer</A></I> </DD></DL>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 182px"><A class=internal title="The pop-up blocker included in Internet Explorer 6 SP 2" href="/wiki/Image:XPSP2_popup.png"><IMG height=141 alt="The pop-up blocker included in Internet Explorer 6 SP 2" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/d7/XPSP2_popup.png/180px-XPSP2_popup.png" width=180 longDesc=/wiki/Image:XPSP2_popup.png></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:XPSP2_popup.png"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>The pop-up blocker included in Internet Explorer 6 SP 2</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<P>Internet Explorer has been designed to view the broadest range of web pages and to provide certain features within the operating system, including <A title="Windows Update" href="/wiki/Windows_Update">Windows Update</A>. During the heydays of the historic <A title="Browser wars" href="/wiki/Browser_wars">browser wars</A>, Internet Explorer superseded Netscape by supporting many of the progressive features of the time.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Internet Explorer" href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_Explorer&action=edit&section=3">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Component_architecture name=Component_architecture></A></P>
<H3>Component architecture</H3>
<P>The <A title="Component Object Model" href="/wiki/Component_Object_Model">Component Object Model</A> (COM) technology is used extensively in Internet Explorer. It allows third parties to add functionalities via <A title="Browser Helper Object" href="/wiki/Browser_Helper_Object">Browser Helper Objects</A> (BHO); and allows websites to offer rich content via <A title=ActiveX href="/wiki/ActiveX">ActiveX</A>. As these objects have the same privileges as the browser itself (in certain situations), this raised concern over security. This issue was addressed in Internet Explorer 6.0 Service Pack 2, which provides an <A title=Add-on href="/wiki/Add-on">Add-on</A> Manager for controlling ActiveX controls and Browser Helper Objects.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Internet Explorer" href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_Explorer&action=edit&section=4">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Usability_and_accessibility name=Usability_and_accessibility></A></P>
<H3>Usability and accessibility</H3>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 182px"><A class=internal title="Tabbed browsing in Internet Explorer 7 Beta 2 preview" href="/wiki/Image:Ie7tabbedbrowsing.PNG"><IMG height=130 alt="Tabbed browsing in Internet Explorer 7 Beta 2 preview" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e5/Ie7tabbedbrowsing.PNG/180px-Ie7tabbedbrowsing.PNG" width=180 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Ie7tabbedbrowsing.PNG></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Ie7tabbedbrowsing.PNG"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Tabbed browsing in Internet Explorer 7 Beta 2 preview</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<P>Since it is tightly integrated with the operating system, Internet Explorer makes use of the accessibility framework provided in Windows. Internet Explorer is also a user interface for FTP, with operations similar to that of <A title="Windows Explorer" href="/wiki/Windows_Explorer">Windows Explorer</A>.</P>
<P>The ability to block <A title=Popup href="/wiki/Popup">popup</A> windows was introduced with Internet Explorer 6.0, Service Pack 2.</P>
<P><A title="Tabbed browsing" href="/wiki/Tabbed_browsing">Tabbed browsing</A>, while not natively supported, can be added to Internet Explorer 6 by installing Microsoft's <A title="MSN Search Toolbar" href="/wiki/MSN_Search_Toolbar">MSN Search Toolbar</A>.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Internet Explorer" href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_Explorer&action=edit&section=5">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Security_framework name=Security_framework></A></P>
<H3>Security framework</H3>
<P>Internet Explorer uses a zone-based <A title="Computer security" href="/wiki/Computer_security">security</A> framework, which means that sites are grouped based upon certain conditions. It allows the restriction of broad areas of functionality, and also allows specific functions to be restricted.</P>
<P>Patches and updates to the browser are released periodically and made available through <A title="Windows Update" href="/wiki/Windows_Update">Windows Update</A> <A title=Website href="/wiki/Website">website</A>. Although security patches continue to be released for a range of platforms, most recent feature additions and security improvements are released for Windows XP only. A report in April 2005 showed that only <A class="external text" title=http://www.winplanet.com/article/2825-.htm href="http://www.winplanet.com/article/2825-.htm">24% of corporate PCs</A> had upgraded to XP SP2.</P>
<P>Internet Explorer 6 Service Pack 2 provide Download Monitoring and Install Monitoring that user can choose to download, or not to download and, choose to install, or not to install Applications, Executables and Installations. This prevents installation of Spywares, Adwares, Viruses or Malwares.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Internet Explorer" href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_Explorer&action=edit&section=6">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Standards_support name=Standards_support></A></P>
<H3>Standards support</H3>
<P>Internet Explorer almost fully supports <A title=HTML href="/wiki/HTML">HTML</A> 4.01, <A title="Cascading Style Sheets" href="/wiki/Cascading_Style_Sheets">CSS</A> Level 1, <A title=XML href="/wiki/XML">XML</A> 1.0 and <A title="Document Object Model" href="/wiki/Document_Object_Model">DOM</A> Level 1, with minor implementation gaps. It partially supports CSS Level 2 and DOM Level 2, with some implementation gaps and conformance issues. It supports <A title=XHTML href="/wiki/XHTML">XHTML</A> 1.0 to the extent that HTML 4.01 compatibility guidelines are followed. Internet Explorer uses <A class=new title="DOCTYPE sniffing" href="/w/index.php?title=DOCTYPE_sniffing&action=edit">DOCTYPE sniffing</A> to choose between "<A title="Quirks mode" href="/wiki/Quirks_mode">quirks mode</A>" (renders similarly to older versions of MSIE) and <A class=new title="Standards mode" href="/w/index.php?title=Standards_mode&action=edit">standards mode</A> (renders closer to W3C's specifications) for HTML and CSS rendering. It fully supports <A title=XSLT href="/wiki/XSLT">XSLT</A> 1.0 or the December 1998 Working Draft of <A title="Extensible Stylesheet Language" href="/wiki/Extensible_Stylesheet_Language">XSL</A>, depending on the version of <A title=MSXML href="/wiki/MSXML">MSXML</A> (a <A title="Dynamic link library" href="/wiki/Dynamic_link_library">dynamic link library</A>) available. It also provides its own dialect of <A title=ECMAScript href="/wiki/ECMAScript">ECMAScript</A> called <A title=JScript href="/wiki/JScript">JScript</A>.</P>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 182px"><A class=internal title="Quick tabs in Internet Explorer 7 Beta 2 preview" href="/wiki/Image:Ie7quicktabs.PNG"><IMG height=129 alt="Quick tabs in Internet Explorer 7 Beta 2 preview" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/93/Ie7quicktabs.PNG/180px-Ie7quicktabs.PNG" width=180 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Ie7quicktabs.PNG></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Ie7quicktabs.PNG"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Quick tabs in Internet Explorer 7 Beta 2 preview</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Internet Explorer" href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_Explorer&action=edit&section=7">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Proprietary_extensions name=Proprietary_extensions></A></P>
<H3>Proprietary extensions</H3>
<P>Internet Explorer has introduced an array of proprietary extensions to many of the standards, including HTML, CSS and the DOM. This has resulted in a number of web pages that can only be viewed properly using Internet Explorer. Many view this as an example of what is called "<A title="Embrace and extend" href="/wiki/Embrace_and_extend">embrace, extend and extinguish</A>" (EEE), a way to drive competitors out of business by forcing them to use proprietary technology that a company controls, resulting in <A title="Vendor lock-in" href="/wiki/Vendor_lock-in">vendor lock-in</A>. Netscape Navigator up to version 4.7 was also responsible for massive proprietary extension of the core web standards, but was not criticized for it as much.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Internet Explorer" href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_Explorer&action=edit&section=8">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Version_7.0 name=Version_7.0></A></P>
<H2>Version 7.0</H2>
<P>For version 7.0 of Internet Explorer, set to ship with <A title="Windows Vista" href="/wiki/Windows_Vista">Windows Vista</A> and as a separate download for <A title="Windows XP" href="/wiki/Windows_XP">Windows XP with Service Pack 2</A> and Windows Server 2003 Service Pack 1, large amounts of the architecture, including the security framework, have been completely overhauled. Partly as a result of these security enhancements, the browser will be a stand-alone application, rather than integrated with the Windows shell, and it will no longer be capable of acting as a file browser. The "beta 1" (build 5112) and "beta 2 preview" (build 5296) pre-releases both operate in this new stand-alone manner.</P>
<P>Two different versions of Internet Explorer 7.0, one for <A title="Windows XP" href="/wiki/Windows_XP">Windows XP</A> with Service Pack 2, <A title="Windows 2003 Server" href="/wiki/Windows_2003_Server">Windows 2003 Server</A> with Service Pack 1 and x64 Editions and the other specific to <A title="Windows Vista" href="/wiki/Windows_Vista">Windows Vista</A>, are going to be launched. The Windows Vista specific version will include all features of the other version. In addition it will run in a sandbox with even lower rights than a limited user account software. As such, it can write to only the Temporary Internet Files folder and can not install start-up programs or change any configuration of the Operating System. This should greatly increase the security of the system.</P>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 182px"><A class=internal title="Feed reader integration in Internet Explorer 7 Beta 2 preview" href="/wiki/Image:Ie7feedreader.PNG"><IMG height=130 alt="Feed reader integration in Internet Explorer 7 Beta 2 preview" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/cb/Ie7feedreader.PNG/180px-Ie7feedreader.PNG" width=180 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Ie7feedreader.PNG></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Ie7feedreader.PNG"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Feed reader integration in Internet Explorer 7 Beta 2 preview</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<P>The browser supports Tabbed browsing in version 7.0. The beta 1 version includes tabbed browsing. It features QuickTabs in beta 2 version which is the thumbnail preview of opened tabs. With this new feature, user can find, open, close, and refresh opened tabs easily.</P>
<P><A title="Web feed" href="/wiki/Web_feed">Web feeds</A> support is built in version 7.0. The feed reader is fully integrated with the browser ,so that user can read Web Feeds(RSS/Atom) without an RSS reader. It also discovers web feeds automatically.</P>
<P>Internet Explorer supports a variety of <A title="Graphics file format" href="/wiki/Graphics_file_format">graphics file formats</A>, including <A title=GIF href="/wiki/GIF">GIF</A>, <A title=JPEG href="/wiki/JPEG">JPEG</A> and <A title=PNG href="/wiki/PNG">PNG</A>. The long-awaited support for PNG <A title="Alpha compositing" href="/wiki/Alpha_compositing">alpha channel</A> was introduced in 7.0 Beta 1.</P>
<P>ActiveX Opt-In blocks ActiveX Control unless it allowed to be installed. This feature improves security from unverificable and vulnerable controls. ActiveX controls can be chosen to be installed on Information Bar. User can turn on and off ActiveX Contol by using Add-on Manager.</P>
<P>On January 31st 2006, Microsoft released a public preview build (beta 2 preview) of Internet Explorer 7 for Windows XP Service Pack 2 (not for Windows Server 2003 SP 1) on their web site. It stated that more public preview builds of Internet Explorer 7 will be released in first half of 2006, and final version will be released in second half of 2006.<A class="external autonumber" title=http://www.microsoft.com/windows/ie/ie7/ie7betaredirect.mspx href="http://www.microsoft.com/windows/ie/ie7/ie7betaredirect.mspx">[3]</A></P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Internet Explorer" href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_Explorer&action=edit&section=9">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Criticisms name=Criticisms></A></P>
<H2>Criticisms</H2>
<DL>
<DD><I>Main article: <A title="Criticisms of Internet Explorer" href="/wiki/Criticisms_of_Internet_Explorer">Criticisms of Internet Explorer</A></I> </DD></DL>
<P>Internet Explorer is subject to a relatively high volume of criticism. Much of this criticism is related to concerns about security: A notable portion of the widespread promulgation of <A title="Spam (electronic)" href="/wiki/Spam_%28electronic%29">spam</A>, <A title=Spyware href="/wiki/Spyware">spyware</A>, <A title=Adware href="/wiki/Adware">adware</A>, and <A title="Computer virus" href="/wiki/Computer_virus">computer viruses</A> across the Internet is known to be facilitated by exploitable bugs and flaws in the security architecture of Internet Explorer. Furthermore, a notable number of users and security experts have pointed out that Microsoft has not been sufficiently committed to fixing the browser's exploitable bugs in a timely manner, and has been ineffective in pushing those changes out to users. Several companies maintain databases of security vulnerabilities known to exist in Internet Explorer and for which no fixes have been published by Microsoft — as of June 2005, there were between 20 and 27 such vulnerabilities reported in Internet Explorer 6 for Windows XP SP2, and 146 in Internet Explorer 6 for Windows 2000 SP4.</P>
<P>Other criticisms, mostly coming from technically proficient users and developers of websites and browser-based software applications, concern Internet Explorer's support of <A title="Open standard" href="/wiki/Open_standard">open standards</A>. Internet Explorer supports, to some degree, a number of standardized technologies, but has implementation gaps and conformance failures — some minor, some not — that have led to criticism from an increasing number of developers. The increase is attributable, in large part, to the fact that competing browsers that offer relatively thorough, standards-compliant implementations are becoming more widely used. Internet Explorer's ubiquity, in spite of its perceived inferiority in this area, frustrates developers who want to write standards-compliant, <A title=Cross-browser href="/wiki/Cross-browser">cross-browser</A> code.</P>
<DIV class="boilerplate seealso">
<DL>
<DD><I>See also: <A title="Criticism of Microsoft" href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Microsoft">Criticism of Microsoft</A></I> </DD></DL></DIV>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Internet Explorer" href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_Explorer&action=edit&section=10">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Market_adoption name=Market_adoption></A></P>
<H2>Market adoption</H2>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Internet Explorer" href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_Explorer&action=edit&section=11">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Usage_share name=Usage_share></A></P>
<H3>Usage share</H3>
<DL>
<DD><I>Further information: <A title="Usage share of web browsers" href="/wiki/Usage_share_of_web_browsers">Usage share of web browsers</A><SPAN class=hiddenStructure>,</SPAN> <SPAN class=hiddenStructure>and</SPAN> <SPAN class=hiddenStructure>[[]]</SPAN><SPAN class=hiddenStructure>,</SPAN> <SPAN class=hiddenStructure>and</SPAN> <SPAN class=hiddenStructure>[[]]</SPAN><SPAN class=hiddenStructure>,</SPAN> <SPAN class=hiddenStructure>and</SPAN> <SPAN class=hiddenStructure>[[]]</SPAN><SPAN class=hiddenStructure>,</SPAN> <SPAN class=hiddenStructure>and</SPAN> <SPAN class=hiddenStructure>[[]]</SPAN><SPAN class=hiddenStructure>,</SPAN> <SPAN class=hiddenStructure>and</SPAN> <SPAN class=hiddenStructure>[[]]</SPAN><SPAN class=hiddenStructure>,</SPAN> <SPAN class=hiddenStructure>and</SPAN> <SPAN class=hiddenStructure>[[]]</SPAN><SPAN class=hiddenStructure>,</SPAN> <SPAN class=hiddenStructure>and</SPAN> <SPAN class=hiddenStructure>[[]]</SPAN><SPAN class=hiddenStructure>, and [[]]</SPAN></I> </DD></DL>
<P>The adoption rate of Internet Explorer seems to be closely related to that of Microsoft Windows, as it is the default web browser that comes with Windows. Since the integration of Internet Explorer 3.0 with Windows 95 OSR 2 in late 1996, the adoption was greatly accelerated: from below 20% in 1996 to about 40% in 1998 and over 80% in 2000. This effect, however, has recently been dubbed the "Microsoft <A title=Monoculture href="/wiki/Monoculture">monoculture</A>", by analogy to the problems associated with lack of <A title=Biodiversity href="/wiki/Biodiversity">biodiversity</A> in an <A title=Ecosystem href="/wiki/Ecosystem">ecosystem</A>. By 2002, Internet Explorer had almost completely superseded its main rival Netscape and dominated the market.</P>
<P>After having fought and won the <A title="Browser wars" href="/wiki/Browser_wars">browser wars</A> of the late 1990s, Internet Explorer began to see its <A title="Usage share" href="/wiki/Usage_share">usage share</A> shrink. Having attained a peak of about 96% in 2002, it has since been in a steady decline. Statistics indicate the current most significant competition comes from <A title="Gecko (layout engine)" href="/wiki/Gecko_%28layout_engine%29">Gecko</A>-based browsers, in particular <A title="Mozilla Firefox" href="/wiki/Mozilla_Firefox">Mozilla Firefox</A>.</P>
<P>Nevertheless, Internet Explorer remains the dominant web browser, with a usage share of around 85% (based on statistics reference) in United States. around 93% in Japan, and around 70% in Germany.<A class="external autonumber" title=http://www.websidestory.com/products/web-analytics/datainsights/spotlight/05-10-2005.html href="http://www.websidestory.com/products/web-analytics/datainsights/spotlight/05-10-2005.html">[4]</A></P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Internet Explorer" href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_Explorer&action=edit&section=12">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Industry_adoption name=Industry_adoption></A></P>
<H3>Industry adoption</H3>
<P>ActiveX is used by many public websites and <A title="Web application" href="/wiki/Web_application">web applications</A>, including <A title=EBay href="/wiki/EBay">eBay</A>. Similarly, <A title="Browser Helper Object" href="/wiki/Browser_Helper_Object">BHOs</A> are also used by many <A title="Search engine" href="/wiki/Search_engine">search engine</A> companies and third parties for creating add-ons that access their services, for example, search engine toolbars. Because of the use of <A title="Component Object Model" href="/wiki/Component_Object_Model">COM</A>, it is possible to include web-browsing functionality in third-party applications. Hence, there are a number of <A title="Internet Explorer shell" href="/wiki/Internet_Explorer_shell">Internet Explorer shells</A>, and a number of applications like <A title=RealPlayer href="/wiki/RealPlayer">RealPlayer</A> (a <A title="Media player" href="/wiki/Media_player">media player</A>) also use Internet Explorer's web browsing module for viewing the <A title="World Wide Web" href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web">World Wide Web</A> within the applications.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Internet Explorer" href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_Explorer&action=edit&section=13">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A name=.22Standalone.22_Internet_Explorer></A></P>
<H2>"Standalone" Internet Explorer</H2>
<P>While it is not officially possible to keep multiple versions of Internet Explorer on the same machine, some <A title=Hacker href="/wiki/Hacker">hackers</A> (Joe Maddalone, Ryan Parman, <I>et al.</I>) successfully separated several versions of Internet Explorer making them standalone applications. These were referred as "standalone" IEs and included versions 3.0 to 5.5 SP2.</P>
<UL>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://labs.insert-title.com/labs/article795.aspx href="http://labs.insert-title.com/labs/article795.aspx">Multiple IEs In Windows Web Design</A> — The web developer Joe Maddalone who found the solution.
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.skyzyx.com/downloads/ href="http://www.skyzyx.com/downloads/">Skyzyx.com - Standalone Internet Explorer</A> — The web developer Ryan Parman who made the customized browsers files available.
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.quirksmode.org/browsers/multipleie.html href="http://www.quirksmode.org/browsers/multipleie.html">Multiple Explorers</A> — Downloads of all the versions </LI></UL>
<P>Microsoft has discontinued standalone installers for Internet Explorer to the general public. However, a blogger/web developer/programmer named Liew Cheon Fong has posted a procedure for downloading the complete install package.</P>
<UL>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.liewcf.com/blog/archives/2005/04/download-full-internet-explorer-6-sp1-standalone-installer/ href="http://www.liewcf.com/blog/archives/2005/04/download-full-internet-explorer-6-sp1-standalone-installer/">Standalone Install Procedure for IE6 SP1</A> </LI></UL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Internet Explorer" href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_Explorer&action=edit&section=14">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Removal name=Removal></A></P>
<H2>Removal</H2>
<DL>
<DD><I>Main article: <A title="Removal of Internet Explorer" href="/wiki/Removal_of_Internet_Explorer">Removal of Internet Explorer</A></I> </DD></DL>
<P>The idea of removing Internet Explorer from a Windows system was first proposed during the <A title="United States v. Microsoft" href="/wiki/United_States_v._Microsoft">United States v. Microsoft</A> case. Critics felt that users should have the right to uninstall Internet Explorer freely just like any other <A title="Application software" href="/wiki/Application_software">application software</A>. One of Microsoft's arguments during the trial was that removing Internet Explorer from Windows may result in system instability.</P>
<P>An Australian computer scientist <A title="Shane Brooks" href="/wiki/Shane_Brooks">Shane Brooks</A> demonstrated that Windows 98 could in fact run with IE files removed <SPAN class=reference><SUP class=plainlinksneverexpand id=ref_FindingsOfFacts><A class="external autonumber" title="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet Explorer#endnote FindingsOfFacts" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Explorer#endnote_FindingsOfFacts">[5]</A></SUP></SPAN>. Brooks went on to develop software designed to customize Windows versions by removing "undesired components", which is known as <A title=98lite href="/wiki/98lite">98lite</A>. He later created <A title=XPLite href="/wiki/XPLite">XPLite</A> to support NT based <A title="Operating system" href="/wiki/Operating_system">operating systems</A>. Both of these pieces of software can remove IE after the installation of the operating system.</P>
<P>There are a few popular methods for removing IE from a copy of the Windows install disc so it never touches the user's hard drive. A method developed by <A class=new title="Fred Vorck" href="/w/index.php?title=Fred_Vorck&action=edit">Fred Vorck</A> involves the manual removal of IE from installation discs. <A title=NLite href="/wiki/NLite">nLite</A>, on the other hand, is an automated program that allows users to exclude IE and many other Windows components from installation as desired.</P>
<P>It is also not possible to run Microsoft's <A title="Windows Update" href="/wiki/Windows_Update">Windows Update</A> with any other browser because of its use of <A title=DirectX href="/wiki/DirectX">DirectX</A>, therefore removing Internet Explorer will cause this.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Internet Explorer" href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_Explorer&action=edit&section=15">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Footnotes name=Footnotes></A></P>
<H2>Footnotes</H2>
<OL>
<LI><CITE id=endnote_SpyglassMosaic style="FONT-STYLE: normal"><A title="" href="#ref_SpyglassMosaic"><B>^</B></A></CITE> <A class="external text" title="http://biztech.ericsink.com/Browser Wars.html" href="http://biztech.ericsink.com/Browser_Wars.html">Memoirs From the Browser Wars</A>, <A title="May 12" href="/wiki/May_12">May 12</A>, <A title=2005 href="/wiki/2005">2005</A>.
<LI><CITE id=endnote_AbandonStandaloneIE style="FONT-STYLE: normal"><A title="" href="#ref_AbandonStandaloneIE"><B>^</B></A></CITE> <A class="external text" title=http://www.zone-h.org/en/news/read/id=2789/ href="http://www.zone-h.org/en/news/read/id=2789/">Microsoft to abandon standalone IE</A>, <A title="May 12" href="/wiki/May_12">May 12</A>, <A title=2005 href="/wiki/2005">2005</A>.
<LI><CITE id=endnote_RSAConference2005 style="FONT-STYLE: normal"><A title="" href="#ref_RSAConference2005"><B>^</B></A></CITE> <A class="external text" title=http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/press/2005/feb05/02-15RSA05KeynotePR.asp href="http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/press/2005/feb05/02-15RSA05KeynotePR.asp">Gates Highlights Progress on Security, Outlines Next Steps for Continued Innovation</A>, <A title="May 12" href="/wiki/May_12">May 12</A>, <A title=2005 href="/wiki/2005">2005</A>.
<LI><CITE id=endnote_IE7PlatformsAndOutlookExpress style="FONT-STYLE: normal"><A title="" href="#ref_IE7PlatformsAndOutlookExpress"><B>^</B></A></CITE> <A class="external text" title=http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2005/02/28/382054.aspx href="http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2005/02/28/382054.aspx">IE7 Platforms and Outlook Express</A>, <A title="May 12" href="/wiki/May_12">May 12</A>, <A title=2005 href="/wiki/2005">2005</A>.
<LI><CITE id=endnote_FindingsOfFacts style="FONT-STYLE: normal"><A title="" href="#ref_FindingsOfFacts"><B>^</B></A></CITE> <A class="external text" title=http://www.usdoj.gov/atr/cases/f3800/msjudgex.htm href="http://www.usdoj.gov/atr/cases/f3800/msjudgex.htm">U.S. v. Microsoft: Court's Findings of Fact</A>, <A title="May 12" href="/wiki/May_12">May 12</A>, <A title=2005 href="/wiki/2005">2005</A>. </LI></OL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Internet Explorer" href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_Explorer&action=edit&section=16">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=References name=References></A></P>
<H2>References</H2>
<UL>
<LI><CITE style="FONT-STYLE: normal"><A class="external text" title=http://www.microsoft.com/windows/WinHistoryIE.mspx href="http://www.microsoft.com/windows/WinHistoryIE.mspx">Microsoft Windows Family Home Page</A>. <I>Windows History: Internet Explorer History</I>. URL accessed on <A title="May 12" href="/wiki/May_12">May 12</A>, <A title=2005 href="/wiki/2005">2005</A>.</CITE>
<LI><CITE style="FONT-STYLE: normal"><A class="external text" title=http://www.blooberry.com/indexdot/history/ie.htm href="http://www.blooberry.com/indexdot/history/ie.htm">Index DOT Html and Index DOT Css</A>. <I>Browser History: Windows Internet Explorer</I>. URL accessed on <A title="May 12" href="/wiki/May_12">May 12</A>, <A title=2005 href="/wiki/2005">2005</A>.</CITE> </LI></UL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Internet Explorer" href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_Explorer&action=edit&section=17">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=See_also name=See_also></A></P>
<H2>See also</H2>
<UL>
<LI><A title="History of the Internet" href="/wiki/History_of_the_Internet">History of the Internet</A>
<LI><A title="Internet Explorer shell" href="/wiki/Internet_Explorer_shell">Internet Explorer shell</A>
<LI><A title="List of web browsers" href="/wiki/List_of_web_browsers">List of web browsers</A>
<LI><A title="Comparison of web browsers" href="/wiki/Comparison_of_web_browsers">Comparison of web browsers</A> </LI></UL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Internet Explorer" href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_Explorer&action=edit&section=18">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=External_links name=External_links></A></P>
<H2>External links</H2>
<UL>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.microsoft.com/windows/ie/ href="http://www.microsoft.com/windows/ie/">Internet Explorer Home</A>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://blogs.msdn.com/ie href="http://blogs.msdn.com/ie">IEBlog</A> — The weblog of the Internet Explorer team
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://channel9.msdn.com/wiki/default.aspx/Channel9.InternetExplorer href="http://channel9.msdn.com/wiki/default.aspx/Channel9.InternetExplorer">Channel9 Wiki: InternetExplorer</A> — The wiki for Internet Explorer
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.microsoft.com/windows/ie/community/ href="http://www.microsoft.com/windows/ie/community/">Internet Explorer Community</A> — The official Microsoft Internet Explorer Community
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://support.microsoft.com/default.aspx?id=293907 href="http://support.microsoft.com/default.aspx?id=293907">How to Uninstall Internet Explorer 6</A> — A Microsoft support article for pre-XP versions of Windows
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://secunia.com/product/11/ href="http://secunia.com/product/11/">Secunia Vulnerability Report for Microsoft Internet Explorer 6.x</A>
<LI><A class="external text" title="http://www.oldapps.com/internet explorer.htm" href="http://www.oldapps.com/internet_explorer.htm">Old Version of Internet Explorer</A>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.microsoft.com/windows/WinHistoryIE.mspx href="http://www.microsoft.com/windows/WinHistoryIE.mspx">Internet Explorer History</A>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.vorck.com/remove-ie.html href="http://www.vorck.com/remove-ie.html">Remove IE from Windows 2000 at install</A> — A guide to burning IE-free Windows installer discs
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.nliteos.com/ href="http://www.nliteos.com/">nLite</A> — A program that disables installation of specified Windows components, including IE
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://msdn.microsoft.com/ie/releasenotes/default.aspx href="http://msdn.microsoft.com/ie/releasenotes/default.aspx">Internet Explorer 7 release notes</A> </LI></UL>
<P>
</P>
<TABLE class=toccolours cellSpacing=0 width="100%" align=center>
<TBODY>
<TR bgColor=#ccccff>
<TD align=middle><B><A title=Microsoft href="/wiki/Microsoft">Microsoft Corporation</A></B></TD></TR>
<TR style="FONT-SIZE: 90%" align=middle>
<TD>
<P><B>Software</B>: <A title="Microsoft Windows" href="/wiki/Microsoft_Windows">Windows</A> | <A title="Microsoft Office" href="/wiki/Microsoft_Office">Office</A> | <A title="Windows Server System" href="/wiki/Windows_Server_System">Server System</A> | <A title="Microsoft Dynamics" href="/wiki/Microsoft_Dynamics">Dynamics</A> | <STRONG>Internet Explorer</STRONG> | <A title="Outlook Express" href="/wiki/Outlook_Express">Outlook Express</A> | <A title="Windows Media Player" href="/wiki/Windows_Media_Player">Windows Media Player</A> | <A title="Windows Update" href="/wiki/Windows_Update">Windows Update</A> | <A title=".NET Framework" href="/wiki/.NET_Framework">.NET</A> | <A title="Microsoft Visual Studio" href="/wiki/Microsoft_Visual_Studio">Visual Studio</A> | <A title=DirectX href="/wiki/DirectX">DirectX</A> | <A title=Encarta href="/wiki/Encarta">Encarta</A> | <A title="Microsoft Works" href="/wiki/Microsoft_Works">Works</A> | <A title="Microsoft Money" href="/wiki/Microsoft_Money">Money</A> | <A title="Microsoft AntiSpyware" href="/wiki/Microsoft_AntiSpyware">AntiSpyware</A>
<B>Internet and mass media</B>: <A title="Microsoft Passport Network" href="/wiki/Microsoft_Passport_Network">Passport</A> | <A title=MSNBC href="/wiki/MSNBC">MSNBC</A> | <A title=MSN.com href="/wiki/MSN.com">MSN.com</A> | <A title=Hotmail href="/wiki/Hotmail">Hotmail</A> | <A title=Live.com href="/wiki/Live.com">Live.com</A> | <A title="MSN Messenger" href="/wiki/MSN_Messenger">MSN Messenger</A> | <A title="MSN Groups" href="/wiki/MSN_Groups">MSN Groups</A>
<B>Gaming</B>: <A title="Microsoft Game Studios" href="/wiki/Microsoft_Game_Studios">Microsoft Game Studios</A> | <A title=Zone.com href="/wiki/Zone.com">Zone.com</A> | <A title=Xbox href="/wiki/Xbox">Xbox</A> | <A title="Xbox 360" href="/wiki/Xbox_360">Xbox 360</A> | <A title="Xbox Live" href="/wiki/Xbox_Live">Xbox Live</A>
<B>Hardware</B>: <A title="MSN TV" href="/wiki/MSN_TV">MSN TV</A> | <A title="Microsoft Natural keyboard" href="/wiki/Microsoft_Natural_keyboard">Natural Keyboard</A> | <A class=new title="Microsoft Mouse" href="/w/index.php?title=Microsoft_Mouse&action=edit">Mouse</A> | <A class=new title="Microsoft Fingerprint" href="/w/index.php?title=Microsoft_Fingerprint&action=edit">Fingerprint</A> | <A title="Microsoft Sidewinder" href="/wiki/Microsoft_Sidewinder">Sidewinder</A>
<B>Education and Training</B>: <A title="Microsoft Certified Professional" href="/wiki/Microsoft_Certified_Professional">MCPs</A> | <A title="Microsoft Developer Network" href="/wiki/Microsoft_Developer_Network">MSDN</A> | <A title="MSDN Academic Alliance" href="/wiki/MSDN_Academic_Alliance">MSDNAA</A> | <A title="Microsoft Campus Agreement" href="/wiki/Microsoft_Campus_Agreement">MSCA</A> | <A class=new title="Microsoft Press" href="/w/index.php?title=Microsoft_Press&action=edit">Microsoft Press</A></P></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:15215-0!1!0!0!!en!2 and timestamp 20060210072215 -->
<DIV class=printfooter>Retrieved from "<A href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Explorer">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Explorer</A>"</DIV>
<DIV id=catlinks>
<P class=catlinks><A title=Special:Categories href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Categories&article=Internet_Explorer">Categories</A>: <SPAN dir=ltr><A title="Category:Internet Explorer" href="/wiki/Category:Internet_Explorer">Internet Explorer</A></SPAN> | <SPAN dir=ltr><A title="Category:Windows web browsers" href="/wiki/Category:Windows_web_browsers">Windows web browsers</A></SPAN> | <SPAN dir=ltr><A title="Category:Microsoft Internet applications" href="/wiki/Category:Microsoft_Internet_applications">Microsoft Internet applications</A></SPAN></P></DIV><!-- end content --><div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/16266475-113955973211217860?l=encyclopediageneral.blogspot.com'/></div>Murat Alperennoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-16266475.post-1139526954793765672006-02-09T14:33:00.004-08:002006-02-09T15:15:55.696-08:00Sigma (letter)Sigma (letter)[EXTRACT]<H3 id=siteSub>From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</H3>
<DIV id=contentSub></DIV>
<DIV id=jump-to-nav>Jump to: <A href="#column-one">navigation</A>, <A href="#searchInput">search</A></DIV><!-- start content -->
<TABLE class=infobox>
<TBODY>
<TR>
<TD>
<DIV class=center>
<DIV class=floatnone><SPAN><A class=image title="" href="/wiki/Image:Greek_alphabet_sigma.png"><IMG height=80 alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c4/Greek_alphabet_sigma.png" width=298 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Greek_alphabet_sigma.png></A></SPAN></DIV></DIV></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD>
<TABLE style="BACKGROUND: none transparent scroll repeat 0% 0%; WIDTH: 100%; TEXT-ALIGN: center">
<TBODY>
<TR>
<TH bgColor=#ccccff colSpan=6><A title="Greek alphabet" href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet">Greek alphabet</A></TH></TR>
<TR>
<TD align=left><A title="Alpha (letter)" href="/wiki/Alpha_%28letter%29">Α α Alpha</A></TD>
<TD align=left><A title="Beta (letter)" href="/wiki/Beta_%28letter%29">Β β Beta</A></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD align=left><A title=Gamma href="/wiki/Gamma">Γ γ Gamma</A></TD>
<TD align=left><A title="Delta (letter)" href="/wiki/Delta_%28letter%29">Δ δ Delta</A></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD align=left><A title=Epsilon href="/wiki/Epsilon">Ε ε Epsilon</A></TD>
<TD align=left><A title="Zeta (letter)" href="/wiki/Zeta_%28letter%29">Ζ ζ Zeta</A></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD align=left><A title="Eta (letter)" href="/wiki/Eta_%28letter%29">Η η Eta</A></TD>
<TD align=left><A title=Theta href="/wiki/Theta">Θ θ Theta</A></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD align=left><A title=Iota href="/wiki/Iota">Ι ι Iota</A></TD>
<TD align=left><A title="Kappa (letter)" href="/wiki/Kappa_%28letter%29">Κ κ Kappa</A></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD align=left><A title=Lambda href="/wiki/Lambda">Λ λ Lambda</A></TD>
<TD align=left><A title="Mu (letter)" href="/wiki/Mu_%28letter%29">Μ μ Mu</A></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD align=left><A title="Nu (letter)" href="/wiki/Nu_%28letter%29">Ν ν Nu</A></TD>
<TD align=left><A title=Xi href="/wiki/Xi">Ξ ξ Xi</A></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD align=left><A title=Omicron href="/wiki/Omicron">Ο ο Omicron</A></TD>
<TD align=left><A title="Pi (letter)" href="/wiki/Pi_%28letter%29">Π π Pi</A></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD align=left><A title="Rho (letter)" href="/wiki/Rho_%28letter%29">Ρ ρ Rho</A></TD>
<TD align=left><STRONG>Σ σ ς Sigma</STRONG></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD align=left><A title=Tau href="/wiki/Tau">Τ τ Tau</A></TD>
<TD align=left><A title=Upsilon href="/wiki/Upsilon">Υ υ Upsilon</A></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD align=left><A title="Phi (letter)" href="/wiki/Phi_%28letter%29">Φ φ Phi</A></TD>
<TD align=left><A title="Chi (letter)" href="/wiki/Chi_%28letter%29">Χ χ Chi</A></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD align=left><A title="Psi (letter)" href="/wiki/Psi_%28letter%29">Ψ ψ Psi</A></TD>
<TD align=left><A title=Omega href="/wiki/Omega">Ω ω Omega</A></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TH bgColor=#ccccff colSpan=2>obsolete letters</TH></TR>
<TR>
<TD align=left><A class=image title="" href="/wiki/Image:Greek_alphabet_digamma2.png"><IMG height=14 alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Greek_alphabet_digamma2.png/25px-Greek_alphabet_digamma2.png" width=25 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Greek_alphabet_digamma2.png></A> <A title=Digamma href="/wiki/Digamma">Digamma</A></TD>
<TD align=left><A class=image title="" href="/wiki/Image:Greek_alphabet_san.png"><IMG height=22 alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Greek_alphabet_san.png/40px-Greek_alphabet_san.png" width=40 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Greek_alphabet_san.png></A> <A title="San (letter)" href="/wiki/San_%28letter%29">San</A></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD align=left><A class=image title="" href="/wiki/Image:Greek_alphabet_qoppa.png"><IMG height=24 alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8f/Greek_alphabet_qoppa.png/40px-Greek_alphabet_qoppa.png" width=40 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Greek_alphabet_qoppa.png></A> <A title=Qoppa href="/wiki/Qoppa">Qoppa</A></TD>
<TD align=left><A class=image title="" href="/wiki/Image:Greek_alphabet_sampi.png"><IMG height=22 alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c8/Greek_alphabet_sampi.png/40px-Greek_alphabet_sampi.png" width=40 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Greek_alphabet_sampi.png></A> <A title=Sampi href="/wiki/Sampi">Sampi</A></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE>
<DL>
<DD>
<DIV class=dablink><I>For other senses of the word "sigma" and other uses of the letter sigma itself, see <A title=Sigma href="/wiki/Sigma">sigma</A>.</I></DIV></DD></DL>
<P><B>Sigma</B> (upper case Σ, lower case σ, lowercase in word-final position ς) is the 18th letter of the <A title="Greek alphabet" href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet">Greek alphabet</A>. In the system of <A title="Greek numerals" href="/wiki/Greek_numerals">Greek numerals</A> it has a value of 200. When used at the end of a word, and the word is not <A title="Upper case" href="/wiki/Upper_case">upper case</A>, the final form (ς) is used.</P>
<P>The letter is ultimately derived from <A title="Phoenician alphabet" href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet">Phoenician</A> <A title="Shin (letter)" href="/wiki/Shin_%28letter%29">Sin</A> <A class=image title="" href="/wiki/Image:Phoenician_sin.png"><IMG height=14 alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/47/Phoenician_sin.png/14px-Phoenician_sin.png" width=14 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Phoenician_sin.png></A>. However, its name derives from <A title=Samekh href="/wiki/Samekh">Samekh</A>.</P>
<P>In Eastern forms of Greek writing (used in the European Greek colonies) and in the Middle Ages, the <B>lunate sigma</B> (upper case C, lower case ϲ) — which resembles like the <A title="Latin alphabet" href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet">Latin letter</A> <A title=C href="/wiki/C">C</A> — was often used. Lunate sigma was frequently used for writing <A title="Medieval Greek" href="/wiki/Medieval_Greek">Medieval Greek</A>, and it can still sometimes be seen in inscriptions in <A title="Greek Orthodox Church" href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church">Greek Orthodox churches</A>, for example, where, for example, the whole of God's creation may be denoted by the word ΚΟCΜΟC ("cosmos"), which in the modern form of writing Greek would be ΚΟΣΜΟΣ.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Sigma (letter)" href="/w/index.php?title=Sigma_%28letter%29&action=edit&section=1">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Science name=Science></A></P>
<H2>Science</H2>
<P>Upper case Σ is used as a symbol for ...</P>
<UL>
<LI>the <A title=Summation href="/wiki/Summation">summation</A> operator
<LI>a class of <A title=Baryon href="/wiki/Baryon">baryons</A> in <A title="Particle physics" href="/wiki/Particle_physics">particle physics</A> </LI></UL>
<P>Lower case σ is used for ...</P>
<UL>
<LI>the parametric <A title="Standard deviation" href="/wiki/Standard_deviation">standard deviation</A> of a population (as opposed to a sample) in <A title=Statistics href="/wiki/Statistics">statistics</A>
<LI>the <A title="Divisor function" href="/wiki/Divisor_function">divisor function</A> in <A title="Number theory" href="/wiki/Number_theory">number theory</A>
<LI>the <A title="Stefan-Boltzmann constant" href="/wiki/Stefan-Boltzmann_constant">Stefan-Boltzmann constant</A>
<LI>the "<A title="Sigma factor" href="/wiki/Sigma_factor">sigma factor</A>" of <A title="RNA polymerase" href="/wiki/RNA_polymerase">RNA polymerase</A>
<LI>a measure of <A title="Electrical conductivity" href="/wiki/Electrical_conductivity">electrical conductivity</A> </LI></UL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Sigma (letter)" href="/w/index.php?title=Sigma_%28letter%29&action=edit&section=2">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Popular_culture name=Popular_culture></A></P>
<H2>Popular culture</H2>
<P>In a practice similar to <A title="Faux Cyrillic" href="/wiki/Faux_Cyrillic">faux Cyrillic</A>, capital sigmas are sometimes used in place of Roman <A title=E href="/wiki/E">Es</A> to give a Greek flavour to titles or text (for example, the film <I><A title="My Big Fat Greek Wedding" href="/wiki/My_Big_Fat_Greek_Wedding">My Big Fat GRΣΣK Wedding</A></I>).</P><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:420994-0!1!0!0!!en!2 and timestamp 20060209020034 -->
<DIV class=printfooter>Retrieved from "<A href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigma_%28letter%29">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigma_%28letter%29</A>"</DIV>
<DIV id=catlinks>
<P class=catlinks><A title=Special:Categories href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Categories&article=Sigma_%28letter%29">Category</A>: <SPAN dir=ltr><A title="Category:Greek letters" href="/wiki/Category:Greek_letters">Greek letters</A></SPAN></P></DIV><!-- end content -->
<DIV class=visualClear></DIV><div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/16266475-113952695479376567?l=encyclopediageneral.blogspot.com'/></div>Murat Alperennoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-16266475.post-1139525894464264992006-02-09T14:33:00.003-08:002006-02-09T14:59:01.646-08:00Super Mario Bros.Super Mario Bros.[EXTRACT]<H3 id=siteSub>From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</H3>
<DIV id=contentSub>(Redirected from <A title="Super Mario Brothers" href="/w/index.php?title=Super_Mario_Brothers&redirect=no">Super Mario Brothers</A>)</DIV>
<DIV id=jump-to-nav>Jump to: <A href="#column-one">navigation</A>, <A href="#searchInput">search</A></DIV><!-- start content -->
<DL>
<DD><SPAN class=dablink><I>For other uses of the term "Super Mario Bros.", see <A title="Super Mario Bros. (disambiguation)" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros._%28disambiguation%29">Super Mario Bros. (disambiguation)</A>.</I></SPAN> </DD></DL>
<TABLE class="infobox bordered" style="FONT-SIZE: 90%; WIDTH: 23em; TEXT-ALIGN: left" cellPadding=3>
<TBODY>
<TR>
<TH style="FONT-SIZE: 110%; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ccccff; TEXT-ALIGN: center" colSpan=2><I>Super Mario Bros.</I></TH></TR>
<TR class=image>
<TD style="TEXT-ALIGN: center" colSpan=2>
<DIV class=center>
<DIV class=floatnone><SPAN><A class=image title="Box art of Super Mario Bros." href="/wiki/Image:Super_Mario_Bros_box.jpg"><IMG height=290 alt="Box art of Super Mario Bros." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/0e/Super_Mario_Bros_box.jpg/200px-Super_Mario_Bros_box.jpg" width=200 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Super_Mario_Bros_box.jpg></A></SPAN></DIV></DIV></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TH style="BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ccccff"><A title="Video game developer" href="/wiki/Video_game_developer">Developer(s)</A></TH>
<TD><A title=Nintendo href="/wiki/Nintendo">Nintendo</A></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TH style="BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ccccff"><A title="Video game publisher" href="/wiki/Video_game_publisher">Publisher(s)</A></TH>
<TD><A title=Nintendo href="/wiki/Nintendo">Nintendo</A></TD></TR>
<TR class=hiddenStructure>
<TH style="BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ccccff">Distributor(s)</TH>
<TD></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TH style="BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ccccff"><A title="Game designer" href="/wiki/Game_designer">Designer(s)</A></TH>
<TD><A title="Shigeru Miyamoto" href="/wiki/Shigeru_Miyamoto">Shigeru Miyamoto</A></TD></TR>
<TR class=hiddenStructure>
<TH style="BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ccccff"><A title="Game engine" href="/wiki/Game_engine">Engine</A></TH>
<TD></TD></TR>
<TR class=hiddenStructure>
<TH style="BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ccccff">Latest version</TH>
<TD></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TH style="WHITE-SPACE: nowrap; BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ccccff">Release date(s)</TH>
<TD><A class=image title=Japan href="/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Japan.svg"><IMG height=15 alt=Japan src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/22px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" width=22 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Japan.svg></A> <A title="September 13" href="/wiki/September_13">September 13</A>, <A title=1985 href="/wiki/1985">1985</A>
<A class=image title="United States of America" href="/wiki/Image:Us_flag_large.png"><IMG height=12 alt="United States of America" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c9/Us_flag_large.png/22px-Us_flag_large.png" width=22 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Us_flag_large.png></A> <A title="October 1" href="/wiki/October_1">October 1</A>, <A title=1985 href="/wiki/1985">1985</A>
<A class=image title=Europe href="/wiki/Image:European_flag.svg"><IMG height=15 alt=Europe src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/European_flag.svg/22px-European_flag.svg.png" width=22 longDesc=/wiki/Image:European_flag.svg></A> <A title=1987 href="/wiki/1987">1987</A></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TH style="BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ccccff"><A title="Computer and video game genres" href="/wiki/Computer_and_video_game_genres">Genre(s)</A></TH>
<TD><A title="Platform game" href="/wiki/Platform_game">Platform game</A></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TH style="BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ccccff">Mode(s)</TH>
<TD><A title="Single player" href="/wiki/Single_player">Single player</A>, <A title=Multiplayer href="/wiki/Multiplayer">multiplayer</A></TD></TR>
<TR class=image>
<TH style="BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ccccff">Rating(s)</TH>
<TD><A title="Entertainment Software Rating Board" href="/wiki/Entertainment_Software_Rating_Board">ESRB</A>: <A class=image title="" href="/wiki/Image:ESRB_E.png"><IMG height=17 alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/55/ESRB_E.png/12px-ESRB_E.png" width=12 longDesc=/wiki/Image:ESRB_E.png></A> Everyone (2004 <A title="NES Classics" href="/wiki/NES_Classics">NES Classics</A> re-release)</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TH style="BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ccccff"><A title="Computer and video games" href="/wiki/Computer_and_video_games#Gaming_platforms">Platform(s)</A></TH>
<TD><A title=Famicom href="/wiki/Famicom">Famicom</A>/<A title="Nintendo Entertainment System" href="/wiki/Nintendo_Entertainment_System">NES</A></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TH style="BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ccccff">Media</TH>
<TD>320-<A title=Kilobit href="/wiki/Kilobit">kilobit</A> <A title="Cartridge (electronics)" href="/wiki/Cartridge_%28electronics%29">cartridge</A></TD></TR>
<TR class=hiddenStructure>
<TH style="BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ccccff">System requirements</TH>
<TD></TD></TR>
<TR class=hiddenStructure>
<TH style="BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ccccff">Input</TH>
<TD></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE>
<P><I><B>Super Mario Bros.</B></I> is a <A title="Video game" href="/wiki/Video_game">video game</A> produced by <A title=Nintendo href="/wiki/Nintendo">Nintendo</A> in <A title=1985 href="/wiki/1985">1985</A>. Universally considered a classic of the medium, <I>Super Mario Bros.</I> was one of the first side-scrolling <A title="Platform game" href="/wiki/Platform_game">platform games</A> of its kind, introducing players to huge, bright, expansive worlds that changed the way video games were created.</P>
<P><I>Super Mario Bros.</I> is considered by <A title="Guinness Book of World Records" href="/wiki/Guinness_Book_of_World_Records">The Guinness Book of World Records</A> as the best-selling video game of all time<A class="external autonumber" title=http://www.ownt.com/qtakes/2003/gamestats/gamestats.shtm href="http://www.ownt.com/qtakes/2003/gamestats/gamestats.shtm">[1]</A>, and was largely responsible for the initial success of the <A title=Famicom href="/wiki/Famicom">Famicom</A> and <A title="Nintendo Entertainment System" href="/wiki/Nintendo_Entertainment_System">Nintendo Entertainment System</A>. It has inspired countless imitators (eventually founding <A title="Platform game" href="/wiki/Platform_game">an entire genre</A>) and was one of <A title="Shigeru Miyamoto" href="/wiki/Shigeru_Miyamoto">Shigeru Miyamoto</A>'s most influential early successes. The game gave <A title=Mario href="/wiki/Mario">Mario</A> (known as <A title=Jumpman href="/wiki/Jumpman">Jumpman</A> in the classic arcade game <A title="Donkey Kong" href="/wiki/Donkey_Kong">Donkey Kong</A>), a starring role. <A title=Mario href="/wiki/Mario">Mario</A>, who became Nintendo's mascot, was at one time more recognizable among American children than <A title="Mickey Mouse" href="/wiki/Mickey_Mouse">Mickey Mouse</A>.</P>
<TABLE class=toc id=toc summary=Contents>
<TBODY>
<TR>
<TD>
<DIV id=toctitle>
<H2>Contents</H2> <SPAN class=toctoggle>[<A class=internal id=togglelink href="javascript:toggleToc()">hide</A>]</SPAN></DIV>
<UL>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Gameplay"><SPAN class=tocnumber>1</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Gameplay</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Popularity"><SPAN class=tocnumber>2</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Popularity</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Sequels_and_spin-offs"><SPAN class=tocnumber>2.1</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Sequels and spin-offs</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Soundtrack"><SPAN class=tocnumber>2.2</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Soundtrack</SPAN></A> </LI></UL>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Alternate_versions"><SPAN class=tocnumber>3</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Alternate versions</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Vs._Super_Mario_Bros."><SPAN class=tocnumber>3.1</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Vs. Super Mario Bros.</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#All_Night_Nippon_Super_Mario_Bros."><SPAN class=tocnumber>3.2</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>All Night Nippon Super Mario Bros.</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Multicart_versions"><SPAN class=tocnumber>3.3</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Multicart versions</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Super_Mario_All-Stars"><SPAN class=tocnumber>3.4</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Super Mario All-Stars</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Super_Mario_Bros._Deluxe"><SPAN class=tocnumber>3.5</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Super Mario Bros. Deluxe</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Classic_NES_rerelease"><SPAN class=tocnumber>3.6</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Classic NES rerelease</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Other_versions"><SPAN class=tocnumber>3.7</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Other versions</SPAN></A> </LI></UL>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Minus_World"><SPAN class=tocnumber>4</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Minus World</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Cheat_Code"><SPAN class=tocnumber>5</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Cheat Code</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Current_world_record"><SPAN class=tocnumber>6</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Current world record</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Trivia"><SPAN class=tocnumber>7</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Trivia</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#References"><SPAN class=tocnumber>8</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>References</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#See_also"><SPAN class=tocnumber>9</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>See also</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#External_links"><SPAN class=tocnumber>10</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>External links</SPAN></A> </LI></UL></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE>
<P>
<SCRIPT type=text/javascript>
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</SCRIPT>
</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Super Mario Bros." href="/w/index.php?title=Super_Mario_Bros.&action=edit&section=1">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Gameplay name=Gameplay></A></P>
<H2>Gameplay</H2>
<DIV class="thumb tleft">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 182px"><A class=internal title="Mario jumps on a Goomba in World 8-1." href="/wiki/Image:NES_Super_Mario_Bros.png"><IMG height=169 alt="Mario jumps on a Goomba in World 8-1." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/50/NES_Super_Mario_Bros.png/180px-NES_Super_Mario_Bros.png" width=180 longDesc=/wiki/Image:NES_Super_Mario_Bros.png></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:NES_Super_Mario_Bros.png"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Mario jumps on a <A title=Goomba href="/wiki/Goomba">Goomba</A> in World 8-1.</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<P><A title="Shigeru Miyamoto" href="/wiki/Shigeru_Miyamoto">Shigeru Miyamoto</A> described his initial idea for <I>Super Mario Bros.</I> as "a character that bounces around. And the background should be a clear, blue sky."<SPAN class=reference><SUP class=plainlinksneverexpand id=ref_inspiration><A class="external autonumber" title="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super Mario Bros.#endnote inspiration" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros.#endnote_inspiration">[2]</A></SUP></SPAN></P>
<P>The player takes the role of Mario, or in the case of a second player, Mario's brother <A title=Luigi href="/wiki/Luigi">Luigi</A>. The ultimate object is to race through the <A title="Mushroom Kingdom" href="/wiki/Mushroom_Kingdom">Mushroom Kingdom</A>, evade or eliminate King Koopa/<A title="King Bowser" href="/wiki/King_Bowser">King Bowser</A>'s forces, and save the <A title="Princess Peach" href="/wiki/Princess_Peach">Princess Peach</A>/Princess Toadstool.</P>
<P>Mario's primary attack is simply jumping on top of his enemies, which kills the mushroom traitors, known as Kuribou/<A title=Goomba href="/wiki/Goomba">Goombas</A>, and sends the turtle soldiers known as Nokonoko/<A title="Koopa Troopa" href="/wiki/Koopa_Troopa">Koopa Troopas</A> into their shells. Mario can then kick these shells into other enemies, which will conveniently dispatch them; but conversely, kicked shells can bounce back off of walls or other vertical obstructions and hit him. Jumping on enough enemies in succession, or kicking a shell into enough enemies in succession (combos), results in double points earned with each enemy killed, eventually earning Mario a <A title=1-up href="/wiki/1-up">1-up</A>, an extra life and another chance to pass the level.</P>
<P>Aiding him in his quest are several power-ups, including the <A title="Super Mushroom" href="/wiki/Super_Mushroom">Super Mushroom</A>, which turns Mario into <A title="Super Mario" href="/wiki/Super_Mario">Super Mario</A>, doubling his size; the <A title="Fire Flower" href="/wiki/Fire_Flower">Fire Flower</A>, which turns Super Mario into <A title="Fiery Mario" href="/wiki/Fiery_Mario">Fiery Mario</A>, allowing him to throw fireballs; <A title="Starman (Nintendo item)" href="/wiki/Starman_%28Nintendo_item%29">Starman</A>, which gives him temporary invincibility; and the <A title="1-up Mushroom" href="/wiki/1-up_Mushroom">1-up Mushroom</A>.</P>
<P>Mario can be hurt if he touches an enemy. If he takes a hit from an enemy as Super Mario or Fiery Mario, he simply reverts back to regular Mario and the game continues. However, if he takes a hit as regular Mario, falls down a pit (regardless of status), or if the time clock runs out, he loses a life, and starts again. The point where Mario continues depends on how far he ran through the level before dying; either from the very beginning, or at an invisible "checkpoint" halfway through the level. There are no checkpoints in castles (#-4) or in world 8 (8-#).</P>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 182px"><A class=internal title="Mario taking on Bowser at the end of the game." href="/wiki/Image:Bowser_%28smb1%29.png"><IMG height=158 alt="Mario taking on Bowser at the end of the game." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/13/Bowser_%28smb1%29.png/180px-Bowser_%28smb1%29.png" width=180 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Bowser_%28smb1%29.png></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Bowser_%28smb1%29.png"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Mario taking on <A title=Bowser href="/wiki/Bowser">Bowser</A> at the end of the game.</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<P>The game consists of eight worlds with four levels in each. Though each world is substantially different, there are basic similarities: typically the first sub-world is a generic above-ground (overworld) level, the second is in an underground dungeon or underwater (or in the overworld with a unique challenge), the third is a series of platforms suspended high in the sky, and the fourth is a fortress or castle. At the end of each castle level, Mario fights "Bowser" (who, until the final level, is actually a lesser enemy disguised as Bowser) across a bridge over a pool of <A title=Lava href="/wiki/Lava">lava</A>. In the later worlds, Bowser throws <A title=Hammer href="/wiki/Hammer">hammers</A> as well as occasional fire breaths. Bowser may be defeated in one of two ways; either by touching the axe at the edge of the bridge (thereby dropping Bowser into the lava), or, as Fiery Mario, throwing fireballs at him to defeat him directly.</P>
<P>The third and sixth worlds take place at <A title=Night href="/wiki/Night">night</A>, and all other worlds take place during the <A title=Day href="/wiki/Day">day</A>.</P>
<P>After beating the game, the player is given the option to start the game again in "'Hard' Mode," where all Goombas are replaced by <A title="Buzzy Beetle" href="/wiki/Buzzy_Beetle">Buzzy Beetles</A> (Koopa Troopa-like enemies who cannot be killed by fireballs), and all enemies walk faster. In addition, some of the elevator-style lifts are about 60% their original size.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Super Mario Bros." href="/w/index.php?title=Super_Mario_Bros.&action=edit&section=2">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Popularity name=Popularity></A></P>
<H2>Popularity</H2>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 182px"><A class=internal title="The title screen of Super Mario Bros. has gone down in video game history." href="/wiki/Image:SuperMarioBrosNESTitle.png"><IMG height=158 alt="The title screen of Super Mario Bros. has gone down in video game history." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/ce/SuperMarioBrosNESTitle.png/180px-SuperMarioBrosNESTitle.png" width=180 longDesc=/wiki/Image:SuperMarioBrosNESTitle.png></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:SuperMarioBrosNESTitle.png"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>The title screen of <I>Super Mario Bros.</I> has gone down in video game history.</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<P>The game sold approximately 40 million copies worldwide, which still stands as a <A title="Guinness World Record" href="/wiki/Guinness_World_Record">Guinness World Record</A>. It has been estimated that this game, next to <I><A title=Tetris href="/wiki/Tetris">Tetris</A></I>, is the <A title="List of best selling computer and video games" href="/wiki/List_of_best_selling_computer_and_video_games">bestselling game</A> of all time.<SPAN class=reference><SUP class=plainlinksneverexpand id=ref_worldrecord><A class="external autonumber" title="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super Mario Bros.#endnote worldrecord" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros.#endnote_worldrecord">[3]</A></SUP></SPAN> Although the game was popular enough on its own, mass distribution is attributable to the popularity of the NES itself. <I>Super Mario Bros.</I> was most often <A title="Pack-in game" href="/wiki/Pack-in_game">packaged with the console</A> (usually in a dual cartridge with the shooting game <I><A title="Duck Hunt" href="/wiki/Duck_Hunt">Duck Hunt</A></I>), just as <I><A title=Tetris href="/wiki/Tetris">Tetris</A></I> was packaged with the <A title="Game Boy" href="/wiki/Game_Boy">Game Boy</A>. <I><A title="Super Mario Bros. 3" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros._3">Super Mario Bros. 3</A></I> is often cited as the best selling non-packaged game of all time.</P>
<P><I>Super Mario Bros.</I> is often cited as the inspiration for many game designers; an example is the inspiration for the designers at <A title="Id Software" href="/wiki/Id_Software">id Software</A> when they developed <I><A title="Commander Keen" href="/wiki/Commander_Keen">Commander Keen</A></I>. (Indeed, <I>Commander Keen</I> began life as a <A title="Personal computer" href="/wiki/Personal_computer">PC</A> <A title=Porting href="/wiki/Porting">port</A> of <I>Super Mario Bros.</I>) It has also been critically acclaimed in retrospect; <A title=IGN href="/wiki/IGN">IGN</A> named it #1 on their top 100 video games list twice (both in 2003 <SPAN class=reference><SUP class=plainlinksneverexpand id=ref_ign2003><A class="external autonumber" title="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super Mario Bros.#endnote ign2003" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros.#endnote_ign2003">[4]</A></SUP></SPAN> and 2005 <SPAN class=reference><SUP class=plainlinksneverexpand id=ref_ign2005><A class="external autonumber" title="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super Mario Bros.#endnote ign2005" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros.#endnote_ign2005">[5]</A></SUP></SPAN>), and it is one of only two games (along with <I><A title="Elite (computer game)" href="/wiki/Elite_%28computer_game%29">Elite</A></I>) to receive a 10/10 score in their "retro reviews" retrospective series.</P>
<P>In February 2006, <A title="Electronic Gaming Monthly" href="/wiki/Electronic_Gaming_Monthly">Electronic Gaming Monthly</A> named <I>Super Mario Bros.</I> number one on its list of the 200 Greatest Games of Their Time.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Super Mario Bros." href="/w/index.php?title=Super_Mario_Bros.&action=edit&section=3">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Sequels_and_spin-offs name=Sequels_and_spin-offs></A></P>
<H3>Sequels and spin-offs</H3>
<P>The success of <I>Super Mario Bros.</I> led Nintendo to choose <A title=Mario href="/wiki/Mario">Mario</A> to be its mascot and eventually resulted in several <A title="Super Mario Bros. (TV)" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros._%28TV%29">TV series</A> and a <A title="Super Mario Bros. (film)" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros._%28film%29">movie</A>. Mario himself became more recognizable among American children than <A title="Mickey Mouse" href="/wiki/Mickey_Mouse">Mickey Mouse</A><SPAN class=reference><SUP class=plainlinksneverexpand id=ref_mickeymouse><A class="external autonumber" title="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super Mario Bros.#endnote mickeymouse" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros.#endnote_mickeymouse">[6]</A></SUP></SPAN>.</P>
<P>The game's popularity eventually led to dozens of sequels and spinoffs. There are three direct sequels to this game on the NES platform:</P>
<UL>
<LI><I><A title="Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros.:_The_Lost_Levels">Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels</A></I> — originally released for the <A title=Famicom href="/wiki/Famicom">Famicom</A> in Japan as <I>Super Mario Bros. 2</I>. This game would later be released worldwide as <I>The Lost Levels</I> on the <A title="Super NES" href="/wiki/Super_NES">Super NES</A> cartridge <A title="Super Mario All-Stars" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_All-Stars">Super Mario All-Stars</A>
<LI><I><A title="Super Mario Bros. 2" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros._2">Super Mario Bros. 2</A></I> — an adaptation of <I><A title="Doki Doki Panic" href="/wiki/Doki_Doki_Panic">Doki Doki Panic</A></I>, a Japanese game unrelated to Mario, released in the U.S. instead of <I>The Lost Levels</I> and later released in Japan as <I>Super Mario USA</I>
<LI><I><A title="Super Mario Bros. 3" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros._3">Super Mario Bros. 3</A></I> </LI></UL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Super Mario Bros." href="/w/index.php?title=Super_Mario_Bros.&action=edit&section=4">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Soundtrack name=Soundtrack></A></P>
<H3>Soundtrack</H3>
<P>The soundtrack, composed by long-time Nintendo composer <A title="Koji Kondo" href="/wiki/Koji_Kondo">Koji Kondo</A>, is often <A title="Sampling (music)" href="/wiki/Sampling_%28music%29">sampled</A>. While many bands have sampled the <I>Super Mario Bros.</I> soundtrack or otherwise recorded songs inspired by the game and its soundtrack, a <I>Super Mario Bros.</I>-inspired single by Japanese band <A class=new title="The Tongari Kids" href="/w/index.php?title=The_Tongari_Kids&action=edit">The Tongari Kids</A>, titled "B-Dash", reached as high as sixth place on the Japanese music charts.<SPAN class=reference><SUP class=plainlinksneverexpand id=ref_tongarikids><A class="external autonumber" title="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super Mario Bros.#endnote tongarikids" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros.#endnote_tongarikids">[7]</A></SUP></SPAN></P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Super Mario Bros." href="/w/index.php?title=Super_Mario_Bros.&action=edit&section=5">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Alternate_versions name=Alternate_versions></A></P>
<H2>Alternate versions</H2>
<P>As one of Nintendo's most popular games, <I>Super Mario Bros.</I> has been rereleased and remade numerous times, ranging from an arcade version released at approximately the same time as the original NES release, to its inclusion as an unlockable game in in the <A title="Nintendo GameCube" href="/wiki/Nintendo_GameCube">GameCube</A> game <I><A title="Animal Crossing" href="/wiki/Animal_Crossing">Animal Crossing</A></I>.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Super Mario Bros." href="/w/index.php?title=Super_Mario_Bros.&action=edit&section=6">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Vs._Super_Mario_Bros. name=Vs._Super_Mario_Bros.></A></P>
<H3>Vs. Super Mario Bros.</H3>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 202px"><A class=internal title="The title screen of Vs. Super Mario Bros." href="/wiki/Image:VVs._Super_Mario_Bros..png"><IMG height=175 alt="The title screen of Vs. Super Mario Bros." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f0/VVs._Super_Mario_Bros..png/200px-VVs._Super_Mario_Bros..png" width=200 longDesc=/wiki/Image:VVs._Super_Mario_Bros..png></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:VVs._Super_Mario_Bros..png"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>The title screen of <I>Vs. Super Mario Bros.</I></DIV></DIV></DIV>
<P>The first of these alternate versions, <I>Vs. Super Mario Bros.</I>, is nearly a separate game in its own right. This game, one of several games made for Nintendo's NES-based <A title="Arcade cabinet" href="/wiki/Arcade_cabinet">arcade cabinet</A>, the <A title="Nintendo Vs. Series" href="/wiki/Nintendo_Vs._Series">Nintendo Vs. Unisystem</A> (and its variant, the Nintendo Vs. Dualsystem), is based loosely on <I>Super Mario Bros.</I>, and has identical gameplay. The stages are different, however; the first stages are subtly different, with small differences like the omission of <A title=1-up href="/wiki/1-up">1-up</A> mushrooms or other hidden items, but later stages are changed entirely. (Many of these later, changed stages later appeared in the Japanese <I><A title="Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros.:_The_Lost_Levels">Super Mario Bros. 2</A></I>.) These changes have a net effect of making <I>Vs. Super Mario Bros.</I> much more difficult than the original <I>Super Mario Bros.</I></P>
<P>As with many older arcade games, it isn't clear exactly when this game was released; while the arcade boards themselves are stamped "<A title=1985 href="/wiki/1985">1985</A>,"<SPAN class=reference><SUP class=plainlinksneverexpand id=ref_boards1985><A class="external autonumber" title="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super Mario Bros.#endnote boards1985" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros.#endnote_boards1985">[8]</A></SUP></SPAN> the Killer List of Video Games and the <A title=MAME href="/wiki/MAME">MAME</A> game listing list the game as having been released in <A title=1986 href="/wiki/1986">1986</A>.<SPAN class=reference><SUP class=plainlinksneverexpand id=ref_klov1986><A class="external autonumber" title="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super Mario Bros.#endnote klov1986" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros.#endnote_klov1986">[9]</A></SUP></SPAN><SPAN class=reference><SUP class=plainlinksneverexpand id=ref_mame1986><A class="external autonumber" title="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super Mario Bros.#endnote mame1986" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros.#endnote_mame1986">[10]</A></SUP></SPAN></P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Super Mario Bros." href="/w/index.php?title=Super_Mario_Bros.&action=edit&section=7">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=All_Night_Nippon_Super_Mario_Bros. name=All_Night_Nippon_Super_Mario_Bros.></A></P>
<H3>All Night Nippon Super Mario Bros.</H3>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 202px"><A class=internal title="The cover of All Night Nippon Super Mario Bros." href="/wiki/Image:All_Night_Nippon_Super_Mario_Bros_box_art.jpg"><IMG height=224 alt="The cover of All Night Nippon Super Mario Bros." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c9/All_Night_Nippon_Super_Mario_Bros_box_art.jpg/200px-All_Night_Nippon_Super_Mario_Bros_box_art.jpg" width=200 longDesc=/wiki/Image:All_Night_Nippon_Super_Mario_Bros_box_art.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:All_Night_Nippon_Super_Mario_Bros_box_art.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>The cover of <I>All Night Nippon Super Mario Bros.</I></DIV></DIV></DIV>
<P><I>All Night Nippon Super Mario Bros.</I> is a version of Super Mario Bros. with graphics based upon a radio show, called '<A title="All Night Nippon" href="/wiki/All_Night_Nippon">All Night Nippon</A>', that was very popular in <A title=Japan href="/wiki/Japan">Japan</A> in <A title=1986 href="/wiki/1986">1986</A>. It was released for the <A title="Famicom Disk System" href="/wiki/Famicom_Disk_System">Famicom Disk System</A>.</P>
<P>The game, which was only released in Japan, was a special promotional version that was given away by the <A title=Japan href="/wiki/Japan">Japanese</A> <A title=Radio href="/wiki/Radio">radio</A> station 'All Night Nippon' in <A title=Raffle href="/wiki/Raffle">raffles</A> in 1986. The game borrows levels from <I>Super Mario Bros.</I>, <I><A title="Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros.:_The_Lost_Levels">Super Mario Bros. 2</A></I> (Japanese version), and <I>Vs. Super Mario Bros.</I> The enemies and the mushroom retainers at the end of <A title=Bowser href="/wiki/Bowser">Bowser</A>'s forts are replaced with Japanese music idols, famous recording artists, and DJs, as well as other people related to 'All Night Nippon.' It was published by <A title="Fuji Television" href="/wiki/Fuji_Television">Fuji TV</A>, the same company that published <I><A title="Doki Doki Panic" href="/wiki/Doki_Doki_Panic">Doki Doki Panic</A></I> (which was later remade into <I>Super Mario USA</I>, a.k.a. <I><A title="Super Mario Bros. 2" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros._2">Super Mario Bros. 2</A></I>).</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Super Mario Bros." href="/w/index.php?title=Super_Mario_Bros.&action=edit&section=8">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Multicart_versions name=Multicart_versions></A></P>
<H3>Multicart versions</H3>
<P>While <I>Super Mario Bros.</I> is the best-selling video game of all time, one of the most common versions of the game is actually an alternate version, a <A title=Multicart href="/wiki/Multicart">multicart</A> including both <I>Super Mario Bros.</I> and <I><A title="Duck Hunt" href="/wiki/Duck_Hunt">Duck Hunt</A></I>. This version, first released in North America in <A title=November href="/wiki/November">November</A> <A title=1988 href="/wiki/1988">1988</A>, was only available packed in with the "NES Action Set," a bundle including the NES, two controllers, the <A title="NES Zapper" href="/wiki/NES_Zapper">Zapper lightgun</A>, and the <I>Super Mario Bros.</I>/<I>Duck Hunt</I> double cartridge.</P>
<P>Later, in <A title=December href="/wiki/December">December</A> of that year, Nintendo also released a three-game multicart, including <I>Super Mario Bros.</I>, <I>Duck Hunt</I>, and <I>World Class Track Meet</I>. This three-game multicart was only included in the "NES Power Set," a bundle including everything in the "Action Set" above, but with the <A title="Power Pad" href="/wiki/Power_Pad">Power Pad</A> and the triple-game cartridge in place of the double-game cartridge.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Super Mario Bros." href="/w/index.php?title=Super_Mario_Bros.&action=edit&section=9">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Super_Mario_All-Stars name=Super_Mario_All-Stars></A></P>
<H3>Super Mario All-Stars</H3>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 182px"><A class=internal title="Title screen of SMB in All-Stars" href="/wiki/Image:SuperMarioBrosSNESTitle.png"><IMG height=157 alt="Title screen of SMB in All-Stars" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b3/SuperMarioBrosSNESTitle.png/180px-SuperMarioBrosSNESTitle.png" width=180 longDesc=/wiki/Image:SuperMarioBrosSNESTitle.png></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:SuperMarioBrosSNESTitle.png"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Title screen of <I>SMB</I> in <I>All-Stars</I></DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DL>
<DD><I>Main article: <A title="Super Mario All-Stars" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_All-Stars">Super Mario All-Stars</A></I> </DD></DL>
<P>In 1993, Nintendo released an enhanced <A title=SNES href="/wiki/SNES">SNES</A> compilation, titled <I>Super Mario All-Stars</I>, of all of the <I>Super Mario</I> games released for the <A title=NES href="/wiki/NES">NES</A> and <A title=Famicom href="/wiki/Famicom">Famicom</A>. The version of <I>Super Mario Bros.</I> included in the compilation had improved graphics, redrawn to match the SNES's greater graphical capabilities and a save game feature. Several glitches from the original NES release were also fixed.</P>
<P>This compilation also includes later <I>Super Mario</I> games, including <I><A title="Super Mario Bros. 3" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros._3">Super Mario Bros. 3</A></I>, the North American/European <I><A title="Super Mario Bros. 2" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros._2">Super Mario Bros. 2</A></I> (known as <I>Super Mario USA</I> in Japan), and the Japanese <I><A title="Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros.:_The_Lost_Levels">Super Mario Bros. 2</A></I> (known as <I>Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels</I> in North America and Europe). A later version of this compilation, sold only as a bundle with the <A title=SNES href="/wiki/SNES">SNES</A>, also includes <I><A title="Super Mario World" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_World">Super Mario World</A></I>.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Super Mario Bros." href="/w/index.php?title=Super_Mario_Bros.&action=edit&section=10">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Super_Mario_Bros._Deluxe name=Super_Mario_Bros._Deluxe></A></P>
<H3>Super Mario Bros. Deluxe</H3>
<DL>
<DD><I>Main article: <A title="Super Mario Bros. Deluxe" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros._Deluxe">Super Mario Bros. Deluxe</A></I> </DD></DL>
<P>In <A title=1999 href="/wiki/1999">1999</A>, <I>Super Mario Bros.</I> was released on the <A title="Game Boy Color" href="/wiki/Game_Boy_Color">Game Boy Color</A>, under the title <I>Super Mario Bros. Deluxe</I>. It featured simultaneous multiplayer, a Challenge mode and also included the Japanese <I><A title="Super Mario Bros. 2" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros._2">Super Mario Bros. 2</A></I> (which was released on <I>Super Mario All-Stars</I> as <I><A title="Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros.:_The_Lost_Levels">Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels</A></I>) as an unlockable. It also was compatible with the <A title="Game Boy Printer" href="/wiki/Game_Boy_Printer">Game Boy Printer</A>. However, the game did not feature any upgraded visuals.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Super Mario Bros." href="/w/index.php?title=Super_Mario_Bros.&action=edit&section=11">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Classic_NES_rerelease name=Classic_NES_rerelease></A></P>
<H3>Classic NES rerelease</H3>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 162px"><A class=internal title="The NES version of Super Mario Bros. was re-released in 2004 on the Game Boy Advance as part of the Classic NES Series." href="/wiki/Image:NESClassicGBA_SuperMarioBros1boxart_160h.jpg"><IMG height=160 alt="The NES version of Super Mario Bros. was re-released in 2004 on the Game Boy Advance as part of the Classic NES Series." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e8/NESClassicGBA_SuperMarioBros1boxart_160h.jpg" width=160 longDesc=/wiki/Image:NESClassicGBA_SuperMarioBros1boxart_160h.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>The NES version of <I>Super Mario Bros.</I> was re-released in 2004 on the Game Boy Advance as part of the <A title="Classic NES Series" href="/wiki/Classic_NES_Series">Classic NES Series</A>.</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DL>
<DD><I>Main article: <A title="Classic NES Series" href="/wiki/Classic_NES_Series">Classic NES Series</A></I> </DD></DL>
<P>In early 2004, Nintendo rereleased the game on the <A title="Game Boy Advance" href="/wiki/Game_Boy_Advance">Game Boy Advance</A> in Japan as part of their Famicom Minis collection and in the U.S. as part of the <A title="Classic NES Series" href="/wiki/Classic_NES_Series">Classic NES Series</A>. Unlike previous re-releases, these versions contain no graphical updates; indeed, they are running in <A title=Emulation href="/wiki/Emulation">emulation</A>. <I>Super Mario Bros.</I> was one of the best-selling of these rereleases; according to the NPD Group (which tracks game sales in North America), this rereleased version of <I>Super Mario Bros.</I> was the best-selling Game Boy Advance game in <A title="June 2004" href="/wiki/June_2004">June 2004</A>, and sixth-best-selling game overall.<SPAN class=reference><SUP class=plainlinksneverexpand id=ref_npdjune2004><A class="external autonumber" title="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super Mario Bros.#endnote npdjune2004" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros.#endnote_npdjune2004">[11]</A></SUP></SPAN></P>
<P>Differences between this and the original are that the screen images appear a bit squashed, due to the smaller <A title="Game Boy Advance" href="/wiki/Game_Boy_Advance">GBA</A> screen, and the high score is saved to the <A title="Cartridge (electronics)" href="/wiki/Cartridge_%28electronics%29">cartridge</A>. In 2005, Nintendo released this game again for the GBA as part of its 20th Anniversary with a special edition, selling approximately 876,000 units.<SPAN class=reference><SUP class=plainlinksneverexpand id=ref_gbasales><A class="external autonumber" title="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super Mario Bros.#endnote gbasales" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros.#endnote_gbasales">[12]</A></SUP></SPAN></P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Super Mario Bros." href="/w/index.php?title=Super_Mario_Bros.&action=edit&section=12">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Other_versions name=Other_versions></A></P>
<H3>Other versions</H3>
<P>Super Mario Bros. is one of the NES games featured in the Gamecube game <I><A title="Animal Crossing" href="/wiki/Animal_Crossing">Animal Crossing</A></I>. <A title=Nintendo href="/wiki/Nintendo">Nintendo</A> released an official way of unlocking it in 2004. Currently the only known way to unlock the game is either by use of a game modification ("cheating") device, such as an <A title="Action Replay" href="/wiki/Action_Replay">Action Replay</A>, or by the use of a special Super Mario Bros. Animal Crossing-e card and the <A title=E-reader href="/wiki/E-reader">e-reader</A> device. Players could connect the e-reader to a <A title="Game Boy Advance" href="/wiki/Game_Boy_Advance">Game Boy Advance</A>, connect this to a Gamecube with a Game Boy Advance to Nintendo Gamecube Cable, go to the E-reader machine at the post office, and swipe the card, allowing the player to recieve the coveted NES game item in the mail. However, the card's rarity has made using an <A title="Action Replay" href="/wiki/Action_Replay">Action Replay</A> or other device much easier to obtain this item, causing a large jump in the popularity of such devices.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Super Mario Bros." href="/w/index.php?title=Super_Mario_Bros.&action=edit&section=13">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Minus_World name=Minus_World></A></P>
<H2>Minus World</H2>
<DL>
<DD><I>Main article: <A title="Minus world" href="/wiki/Minus_world">Minus world</A></I> </DD></DL>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 182px"><A class=internal title="World -1" href="/wiki/Image:Smb1_minus_world.png"><IMG height=158 alt="World -1" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/2b/Smb1_minus_world.png/180px-Smb1_minus_world.png" width=180 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Smb1_minus_world.png></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Smb1_minus_world.png"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>World -1</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<P>Minus World is an infinite water level (with a layout similar to that of Levels 2-2 and 7-2). Most likely the result of a glitch rather than intentionally created, this level is sometimes claimed to be a myth. It does exist, although it can be difficult to reach. It is only accessible by performing a certain jumping trick in Level 1-2 at the pipe that leads to the end of the level. This trick allows Mario to move through the wall to where the level's warp zone is located. There, the first pipe leads to the Minus World, but only if the game doesn't scroll to show all the pipes; in which case, the pipes revert to their default locations. (Incidently, the second pipe leads to World 5 if reached in time.)</P>
<P>Once Minus World is reached, it is impossible to escape, and Mario is destined to die by running out of time (assuming he survives the standard water-level obstacles as well). The reason for this is because the pipe at the end of the level leads to the very beginning, instead of dry land, and therefore, the level loops, or repeats itself. The name was created by a glitch, and since it is not a normal level, the name is literally <I>(nothing)</I>-1, creating the effect of -1. Technically speaking, the Minus World is world 36.</P>
<P>World 36 in the Japanese <A title="Famicom Disk System" href="/wiki/Famicom_Disk_System">Famicom Disk System</A> version of the game is considerably different and has three levels, after which the player is returned to the title screen as though he or she completed the game. This glitch has been fixed in the <I>Super Mario All-Stars</I> remake as well as in <I>Super Mario Bros. Deluxe</I>.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Super Mario Bros." href="/w/index.php?title=Super_Mario_Bros.&action=edit&section=14">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Cheat_Code name=Cheat_Code></A></P>
<H2>Cheat Code</H2>
<P>A very simple and well-known secret code in Super Mario Bros. is often recognized as one of the very first "cheat codes", or "easter eggs", in videogames. If a player advanced to a higher world, but then received a Game Over, the player could hold A when pressing Start to select the "1 Player Game" option at the main menu, which would allow for them to return to whatever world they left off at instead of starting the game on the very first level.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Super Mario Bros." href="/w/index.php?title=Super_Mario_Bros.&action=edit&section=15">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Current_world_record name=Current_world_record></A></P>
<H2>Current world record</H2>
<P>The current world record time for this game has been set by Trevor Seguin, Andrew Gardikis, and Carlos Krueger with times of 5 minutes and 9 seconds. These claims have been confirmed by <A title="Twin Galaxies" href="/wiki/Twin_Galaxies">Twin Galaxies</A>, and a video is available at the <A title="Speed Demos Archive" href="/wiki/Speed_Demos_Archive">Speed Demos Archive</A> <A class="external autonumber" title=http://speeddemosarchive.com/Mario1.html href="http://speeddemosarchive.com/Mario1.html">[13]</A>. These are both only a few seconds slower than the fastest known <A title="Tool-assisted speedrun" href="/wiki/Tool-assisted_speedrun">tool-assisted speedrun</A>, which currently measures at just under 5 minutes.</P>
<DL>
<DD><I>Further reading: <A title=Speedrun href="/wiki/Speedrun">Speedrun</A></I> </DD></DL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Super Mario Bros." href="/w/index.php?title=Super_Mario_Bros.&action=edit&section=16">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Trivia name=Trivia></A></P>
<H2>Trivia</H2>
<UL>
<LI>The so-called "growing Mario" sound was used in a <A title=Colecovision href="/wiki/Colecovision">Colecovision</A> game <I><A class=new title=Wallbreaker href="/w/index.php?title=Wallbreaker&action=edit">Wallbreaker</A></I>.
<LI>Topped the list of "The Greatest 200 Games of Our Time" feature in <A title="Electronic Gaming Monthly" href="/wiki/Electronic_Gaming_Monthly">Electronic Gaming Monthly</A>'s <A title=February href="/wiki/February">February</A> <A title=2006 href="/wiki/2006">2006</A> issue, as part of a 200-issue celebration. It beat many other Mario titles, including <A title="Super Mario Bros. 3" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros._3">Super Mario Bros. 3</A> (14), <A title="Super Mario 64" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_64">Super Mario 64</A> (6), <A title="Super Mario World" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_World">Super Mario World</A> (88) and <A title="Super Mario World 2: Yoshi's Island" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_World_2:_Yoshi%27s_Island">Super Mario World 2: Yoshi's Island</A> (83).
<LI>With the exception of the "firesticks" seen in the castles, every enemy in the game went on to reappear in <I><A title="Super Mario Bros. 3" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros._3">Super Mario Bros. 3</A></I>. </LI></UL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Super Mario Bros." href="/w/index.php?title=Super_Mario_Bros.&action=edit&section=17">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=References name=References></A></P>
<H2>References</H2>
<OL>
<LI><CITE id=endnote_inspiration style="FONT-STYLE: normal"><A title="" href="#ref_inspiration"><B>^</B></A></CITE> - O'Connell, Patricia. <A class="external text" title="http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/05 45/b3958127.htm?campaign id=rss magzn" href="http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/05_45/b3958127.htm?campaign_id=rss_magzn">"Meet Mario's Papa"</A>, <I>BusinessWeek online</I>, <A title="November 7" href="/wiki/November_7">November 7</A>, <A title=2005 href="/wiki/2005">2005</A>, retrieved <A title="November 26" href="/wiki/November_26">November 26</A>, <A title=2005 href="/wiki/2005">2005</A>.
<LI><CITE id=endnote_worldrecord style="FONT-STYLE: normal"><A title="" href="#ref_worldrecord"><B>^</B></A></CITE> - <A class="external text" title="http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/content pages/record.asp?recordid=52404" href="http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/content_pages/record.asp?recordid=52404">Best-Selling Video Games</A>, <I>Guinness World Records</I>, <A title=1999 href="/wiki/1999">1999</A>, retrieved <A title="November 21" href="/wiki/November_21">November 21</A>, <A title=2005 href="/wiki/2005">2005</A>.
<LI><CITE id=endnote_ign2003 style="FONT-STYLE: normal"><A title="" href="#ref_ign2003"><B>^</B></A></CITE> - <A class="external text" title=http://top100.ign.com/2003/1-10.html href="http://top100.ign.com/2003/1-10.html">IGN's Top 100 Games</A>, <B>IGN.com</B>, <A title="May 9" href="/wiki/May_9">May 9</A>, <A title=2003 href="/wiki/2003">2003</A>, retrieved <A title="November 26" href="/wiki/November_26">November 26</A>, <A title=2005 href="/wiki/2005">2005</A>.
<LI><CITE id=endnote_ign2005 style="FONT-STYLE: normal"><A title="" href="#ref_ign2005"><B>^</B></A></CITE> - <A class="external text" title=http://top100.ign.com/2005/001-010.html href="http://top100.ign.com/2005/001-010.html">IGN's Top 100 Games</A>, <B>IGN.com</B>, retrieved <A title="November 26" href="/wiki/November_26">November 26</A>, <A title=2005 href="/wiki/2005">2005</A>.
<LI><CITE id=endnote_mickeymouse style="FONT-STYLE: normal"><A title="" href="#ref_mickeymouse"><B>^</B></A></CITE> - Sheff, David. <I>Game Over: How Nintendo Zapped an American Industry, Captured Your Dollars, and Enslaved Your Children</I>, Random House, <A title=1991 href="/wiki/1991">1991</A>.
<LI><CITE id=endnote_tongarikids style="FONT-STYLE: normal"><A title="" href="#ref_tongarikids"><B>^</B></A></CITE> - Nllzumi, Hirohiko. <A class="external text" title=http://www.gamespot.com/nes/action/supermariobros/news.html?sid=6127068 href="http://www.gamespot.com/nes/action/supermariobros/news.html?sid=6127068">"Mario music bounces up the charts,"</A> <I>Gamespot</I>, <A title="June 7" href="/wiki/June_7">June 7</A>, <A title=2005 href="/wiki/2005">2005</A>, retrieved <A title="November 26" href="/wiki/November_26">November 26</A>, <A title=2005 href="/wiki/2005">2005</A>.
<LI><CITE id=endnote_boards1985 style="FONT-STYLE: normal"><A title="" href="#ref_boards1985"><B>^</B></A></CITE> - passport. <A class="external text" title="http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node=Vs. Super Mario Bros.&lastnode id=1069708" href="http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node=Vs.%20Super%20Mario%20Bros.&lastnode_id=1069708">Vs. Super Mario Bros.</A>, Everything2, <A title="December 29" href="/wiki/December_29">December 29</A>, <A title=2001 href="/wiki/2001">2001</A>, retrieved <A title="November 21" href="/wiki/November_21">November 21</A>, <A title=2005 href="/wiki/2005">2005</A>.
<LI><CITE id=endnote_klov1986 style="FONT-STYLE: normal"><A title="" href="#ref_klov1986"><B>^</B></A></CITE> - <A class="external text" title="http://www.klov.com/game detail.php?letter=&game id=10371" href="http://www.klov.com/game_detail.php?letter=&game_id=10371">Vs. Super Mario Bros.</A>, Killer List of Video Games, retrieved <A title="November 22" href="/wiki/November_22">November 22</A>, <A title=2005 href="/wiki/2005">2005</A>.
<LI><CITE id=endnote_mame1986 style="FONT-STYLE: normal"><A title="" href="#ref_mame1986"><B>^</B></A></CITE> - <A class="external text" title=http://www.mame.net/screenshotsV2.html href="http://www.mame.net/screenshotsV2.html">Screenshots V</A>, Multiple Arcade Machine Emulator website, retrieved <A title="November 22" href="/wiki/November_22">November 22</A>, <A title=2005 href="/wiki/2005">2005</A>.
<LI><CITE id=endnote_npdjune2004 style="FONT-STYLE: normal"><A title="" href="#ref_npdjune2004"><B>^</B></A></CITE> - Thorsen, Tor. <A class="external text" title=http://www.gamespot.com/gba/action/famicomminisupermariobros/news.html?sid=6103856 href="http://www.gamespot.com/gba/action/famicomminisupermariobros/news.html?sid=6103856">"ChartSpot: June 2004"</A>, <I>Gamespot</I>, <A title="August 2" href="/wiki/August_2">August 2</A>, <A title=2004 href="/wiki/2004">2004</A>, retrieved <A title="November 26" href="/wiki/November_26">November 26</A>, <A title=2005 href="/wiki/2005">2005</A>.
<LI><CITE id=endnote_gbasales style="FONT-STYLE: normal"><A title="" href="#ref_gbasales"><B>^</B></A></CITE> - Jenkins, David. <A class="external text" title="http://www.gamasutra.com/php-bin/news index.php?story=6766" href="http://www.gamasutra.com/php-bin/news_index.php?story=6766">"Japanese Sales Charts, Week Ending October 2"</A>, <I>Gamasutra</I>, <A title="October 7" href="/wiki/October_7">October 7</A>, <A title=2005 href="/wiki/2005">2005</A>, retrieved <A title="November 22" href="/wiki/November_22">November 22</A>, <A title=2005 href="/wiki/2005">2005</A>. </LI></OL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Super Mario Bros." href="/w/index.php?title=Super_Mario_Bros.&action=edit&section=18">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=See_also name=See_also></A></P>
<H2>See also</H2>
<DIV class="infobox sisterproject">
<DIV style="FLOAT: left">
<DIV class=floatnone><SPAN><A class=image title=Wikibooks href="/wiki/Image:Wikibooks-logo-en.svg"><IMG height=57 alt=Wikibooks src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Wikibooks-logo-en.svg/50px-Wikibooks-logo-en.svg.png" width=50 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Wikibooks-logo-en.svg></A></SPAN></DIV></DIV>
<DIV style="MARGIN-LEFT: 60px"><A class=extiw title=wikibooks: href="http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/">Wikibooks</A> has more about this subject:
<DIV style="MARGIN-LEFT: 10px"><I><B><A class=extiw title="wikibooks:NES & Famicom games" href="http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/NES_%26_Famicom_games">NES & Famicom games</A></B></I></DIV></DIV></DIV>
<UL>
<LI><A title="List of Mario games" href="/wiki/List_of_Mario_games">List of Mario games</A>
<LI><A title="List of Famicom games" href="/wiki/List_of_Famicom_games">List of Famicom games</A>
<LI><A title="List of NES games" href="/wiki/List_of_NES_games">List of NES games</A>
<LI><A title="List of Mario series characters" href="/wiki/List_of_Mario_series_characters">List of Mario series characters</A>
<LI><A title="Great Giana Sisters" href="/wiki/Great_Giana_Sisters">Great Giana Sisters</A>, an <A title=Amiga href="/wiki/Amiga">Amiga</A> and <A title="Commodore 64" href="/wiki/Commodore_64">Commodore 64</A> game that was withdrawn due to its similarity to <I>Super Mario Bros.</I> </LI></UL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Super Mario Bros." href="/w/index.php?title=Super_Mario_Bros.&action=edit&section=19">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=External_links name=External_links></A></P>
<H2>External links</H2>
<DIV class="infobox sisterproject">
<DIV class=floatleft><SPAN><A class=image title=" " href="/wiki/Image:Wikiquote-logo-en.png"><IMG height=50 alt=" " src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Wikiquote-logo-en.png/50px-Wikiquote-logo-en.png" width=50 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Wikiquote-logo-en.png></A></SPAN></DIV>
<DIV style="MARGIN-LEFT: 60px"><A title=Wikiquote href="/wiki/Wikiquote">Wikiquote</A> has a collection of quotations related to:
<DIV style="MARGIN-LEFT: 10px"><I><B><A class=extiw title="wikiquote:Special:Search/Super Mario Bros." href="http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Super_Mario_Bros.">Super Mario Bros.</A></B></I></DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class="infobox sisterproject">
<DIV style="FLOAT: left">
<DIV class=floatnone><SPAN><A class=image title=Wikibooks href="/wiki/Image:Wikibooks-logo-en.svg"><IMG height=57 alt=Wikibooks src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Wikibooks-logo-en.svg/50px-Wikibooks-logo-en.svg.png" width=50 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Wikibooks-logo-en.svg></A></SPAN></DIV></DIV>
<DIV style="MARGIN-LEFT: 60px"><A title=Wikibooks href="/wiki/Wikibooks">Wikibooks</A> has more about this subject:
<DIV style="MARGIN-LEFT: 10px"><I><B><A class=extiw title="wikibooks:Special:Search/Super Mario Bros." href="http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Super_Mario_Bros.">Super Mario Bros.</A></B></I></DIV></DIV></DIV>
<UL>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.smbhq.com/ href="http://www.smbhq.com/">Super Mario Bros. Headquarters</A>
<LI><A class="external text" title="http://www.nesfiles.com/NES/Super Mario Bros/Super Mario Bros.asp" href="http://www.nesfiles.com/NES/Super_Mario_Bros/Super_Mario_Bros.asp">Super Mario Bros at The NES Files</A>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.toadscastle.net/ href="http://www.toadscastle.net/">toadscastle.net</A>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://themushroomkingdom.net/ href="http://themushroomkingdom.net/">The Mushroom Kingdom</A>
<LI><A class="external text" title="http://themushroomkingdom.net/smb bugs.shtml" href="http://themushroomkingdom.net/smb_bugs.shtml">The <I>Super Mario Bros.</I> glitch page on The Mushroom Kingdom</A>. </LI></UL>
<DIV class=NavFrame id=NavFrame1 style="CLEAR: both; MARGIN-LEFT: auto; WIDTH: 80%; MARGIN-RIGHT: auto">
<DIV class=NavHead style="BACKGROUND: #ff6666"><I><B><A title="List of Mario games" href="/wiki/List_of_Mario_games">Mario series</A></B></I><A class=NavToggle id=NavToggle1 href="javascript:toggleNavigationBar(1);">[ Hide ]</A></DIV>
<DIV class=NavContent style="POSITION: relative" align=left>
<TABLE>
<TBODY>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left width="18%"><B>Platforming games</B></TD>
<TD vAlign=top><I><A title="Donkey Kong (arcade game)" href="/wiki/Donkey_Kong_%28arcade_game%29">Donkey Kong</A></I> | <I><A title="Mario Bros." href="/wiki/Mario_Bros.">Mario Bros.</A></I> | <I><STRONG>Super Mario Bros.</STRONG></I> | <A title="Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros.:_The_Lost_Levels"><I>Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels (SMB2J)</I></A> | <I><A title="Super Mario Bros. 2" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros._2">Super Mario Bros. 2</A></I> | <I><A title="Super Mario Land" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_Land">Super Mario Land</A></I> | <I><A title="Super Mario Bros. 3" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros._3">Super Mario Bros. 3</A></I> | <I><A title="Super Mario World" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_World">Super Mario World</A></I> | <I><A title="Super Mario Land 2: 6 Golden Coins" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_Land_2:_6_Golden_Coins">Super Mario Land 2</A></I> |<I><A title="Super Mario 64" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_64">Super Mario 64</A></I> | <I><A title="Super Mario Sunshine" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_Sunshine">Super Mario Sunshine</A></I> | <I><A title="Super Princess Peach" href="/wiki/Super_Princess_Peach">Super Princess Peach</A></I> | <A title="New Super Mario Bros." href="/wiki/New_Super_Mario_Bros."><I>New Super Mario Bros.</I> (working title)</A></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left><B>Mario RPG subseries</B></TD>
<TD vAlign=top><I><A title="Super Mario RPG: Legend of the Seven Stars" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_RPG:_Legend_of_the_Seven_Stars">Super Mario RPG</A></I> | <I><A title="Paper Mario" href="/wiki/Paper_Mario">Paper Mario</A></I> | <I><A title="Mario & Luigi: Superstar Saga" href="/wiki/Mario_%26_Luigi:_Superstar_Saga">Mario & Luigi: Superstar Saga</A></I> | <I><A title="Paper Mario: The Thousand-Year Door" href="/wiki/Paper_Mario:_The_Thousand-Year_Door">Paper Mario: The Thousand-Year Door</A></I> | <I><A title="Mario & Luigi: Partners in Time" href="/wiki/Mario_%26_Luigi:_Partners_in_Time">Mario & Luigi: Partners in Time</A></I></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left><B>Mario spinoffs</B></TD>
<TD vAlign=top><I><A title="Mario Kart" href="/wiki/Mario_Kart">Mario Kart series</A></I> | <I><A title="Mario Party series" href="/wiki/Mario_Party_series">Mario Party series</A></I> | <I><A title="Mario Golf" href="/wiki/Mario_Golf">Mario Golf series</A></I> | <I><A title="Mario Tennis" href="/wiki/Mario_Tennis">Mario Tennis series</A></I> | <I><A title="Luigi's Mansion" href="/wiki/Luigi%27s_Mansion">Luigi's Mansion</A></I> | <I><A title="Mario Superstar Baseball" href="/wiki/Mario_Superstar_Baseball">Mario Superstar Baseball</A></I> | <I><A title="Super Mario Strikers" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_Strikers">Super Mario Strikers</A></I> | <I><A title="Dance Dance Revolution: Mario Mix" href="/wiki/Dance_Dance_Revolution:_Mario_Mix">Dance Dance Revolution Mario Mix</A></I> | <I><A title="Mario Pinball Land" href="/wiki/Mario_Pinball_Land">Mario Pinball Land</A></I> | <A title="Dr. Mario series" href="/wiki/Dr._Mario_series"><I>Dr. Mario</I> series</A></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left><B>Alternate versions</B></TD>
<TD vAlign=top><I><A title="Super Mario All-Stars" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_All-Stars">Super Mario All-Stars</A></I> | <I><A title="Super Mario Bros. Deluxe" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros._Deluxe">Super Mario Bros. DX</A></I> | <I><A title="Super Mario remake series" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_remake_series#Super_Mario_Advance">Super Mario Advance</A></I> | <I><A title="Super Mario remake series" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_remake_series#Super_Mario_World:_Super_Mario_Advance_2">Super Mario Advance 2</A></I> | <I><A title="Super Mario remake series" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_remake_series#Yoshi.27s_Island:_Super_Mario_Advance_3">Super Mario Advance 3</A></I> | <I><A title="Super Mario Advance 4: Super Mario Bros. 3" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_Advance_4:_Super_Mario_Bros._3">Super Mario Advance 4</A></I> | <I><A title="Super Mario 64 DS" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_64_DS">Super Mario 64 DS</A></I></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left><B>Yoshi games</B></TD>
<TD vAlign=top><I><A title="Yoshi (game)" href="/wiki/Yoshi_%28game%29">Yoshi</A></I> | <I><A title="Yoshi's Cookie" href="/wiki/Yoshi%27s_Cookie">Yoshi's Cookie</A></I> | <I><A title="Yoshi's Safari" href="/wiki/Yoshi%27s_Safari">Yoshi's Safari</A></I> | <I><A title="Super Mario World 2: Yoshi's Island" href="/wiki/Super_Mario_World_2:_Yoshi%27s_Island">Super Mario World 2: Yoshi's Island</A></I> | <I><A title="Yoshi's Story" href="/wiki/Yoshi%27s_Story">Yoshi's Story</A></I> | <I><A title="Yoshi Topsy-Turvy" href="/wiki/Yoshi_Topsy-Turvy">Yoshi Topsy-Turvy</A></I> | <I><A title="Yoshi Touch & Go" href="/wiki/Yoshi_Touch_%26_Go">Yoshi Touch & Go</A></I></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD vAlign=top align=left><B>Characters</B></TD>
<TD vAlign=top><A title=Mario href="/wiki/Mario">Mario</A> | <A title=Luigi href="/wiki/Luigi">Luigi</A> | <A title=Wario href="/wiki/Wario">Wario</A> | <A title=Waluigi href="/wiki/Waluigi">Waluigi</A> | <A title=Yoshi href="/wiki/Yoshi">Yoshi</A> | <A title="Toad (Nintendo)" href="/wiki/Toad_%28Nintendo%29">Toad</A> | <A title="Princess Peach" href="/wiki/Princess_Peach">Princess Peach</A> | <A title=Bowser href="/wiki/Bowser">Bowser</A> | <A title="Donkey Kong" href="/wiki/Donkey_Kong">Donkey Kong</A></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE></DIV></DIV><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:81121-0!1!0!0!!en!2 and timestamp 20060209224115 -->
<DIV class=printfooter>Retrieved from "<A href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros.">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Mario_Bros.</A>"</DIV>
<DIV id=catlinks>
<P class=catlinks><A title=Special:Categories href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Categories&article=Super_Mario_Bros.">Categories</A>: <SPAN dir=ltr><A title="Category:Mario platform games" href="/wiki/Category:Mario_platform_games">Mario platform games</A></SPAN> | <SPAN dir=ltr><A title="Category:NES games" href="/wiki/Category:NES_games">NES games</A></SPAN> | <SPAN dir=ltr><A title="Category:Arcade games" href="/wiki/Category:Arcade_games">Arcade games</A></SPAN> | <SPAN dir=ltr><A title="Category:1985 computer and video games" href="/wiki/Category:1985_computer_and_video_games">1985 computer and video games</A></SPAN> | <SPAN dir=ltr><A title="Category:1986 arcade games" href="/wiki/Category:1986_arcade_games">1986 arcade games</A></SPAN> | <SPAN dir=ltr><A title="Category:1986 computer and video games" href="/wiki/Category:1986_computer_and_video_games">1986 computer and video games</A></SPAN> | <SPAN dir=ltr><A title="Category:Killer games" href="/wiki/Category:Killer_games">Killer games</A></SPAN> | <SPAN dir=ltr><A title="Category:PlayChoice-10 games" href="/wiki/Category:PlayChoice-10_games">PlayChoice-10 games</A></SPAN> | <SPAN dir=ltr><A title="Category:Nintendo Vs. Series games" href="/wiki/Category:Nintendo_Vs._Series_games">Nintendo Vs. Series games</A></SPAN></P></DIV><!-- end content -->
<DIV class=visualClear></DIV><div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/16266475-113952589446426499?l=encyclopediageneral.blogspot.com'/></div>Murat Alperennoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-16266475.post-1139524780057915402006-02-09T14:33:00.002-08:002006-02-09T14:40:25.270-08:00Kemal AtatürkKemal Atatürk[EXTRACT]<H3 id=siteSub>From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</H3>
<DIV id=contentSub>(Redirected from <A title=Atatürk href="/w/index.php?title=Atat%C3%BCrk&redirect=no">Atatürk</A>)</DIV>
<DIV id=jump-to-nav>Jump to: <A href="#column-one">navigation</A>, <A href="#searchInput">search</A></DIV><!-- start content -->
<TABLE class="infobox bordered" style="FONT-SIZE: 90%; WIDTH: 20em; TEXT-ALIGN: left" cellPadding=3>
<CAPTION style="FONT-SIZE: larger"><B>Mustafa Kemal Atatürk</B></CAPTION>
<TBODY>
<TR style="TEXT-ALIGN: center">
<TD colSpan=2><A class=image title=" " href="/wiki/Image:Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk.gif"><IMG height=285 alt=" " src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk.gif/200px-Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk.gif" width=200 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk.gif></A>
</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD style="TEXT-ALIGN: center" colSpan=2></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TH>Nationality</TH>
<TD><A title=Turkey href="/wiki/Turkey">Turk</A></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TH>Term of office</TH>
<TD><A title="October 29" href="/wiki/October_29">October 29</A>, <A title=1923 href="/wiki/1923">1923</A> – <SPAN style="WHITE-SPACE: nowrap"><A title="November 10" href="/wiki/November_10">November 10</A>, <A title=1938 href="/wiki/1938">1938</A></SPAN></TD></TR>
<TR class=hiddenStructure>
<TH>Deputy Prime Minister</TH>
<TD></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TH>Predecessor</TH>
<TD></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TH>Successor</TH>
<TD><A title="Ismet Inonu" href="/wiki/Ismet_Inonu">İsmet İnönü</A>, <A title="Celal Bayar" href="/wiki/Celal_Bayar">Celal Bayar</A> (President)
<A title="Fevzi Çakmak" href="/wiki/Fevzi_%C3%87akmak">Fevzi Çakmak</A>, <A title="Rauf Orbay" href="/wiki/Rauf_Orbay">Rauf Orbay</A> (Prime Minister)</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TH>Born</TH>
<TD><A title=1881 href="/wiki/1881">1881</A>
<A title=Thessaloníki href="/wiki/Thessalon%C3%ADki">Thessaloníki</A> (<A title=Selânik href="/wiki/Sel%C3%A2nik">Selânik</A>)</TD></TR>
<TR>
<TH>Died</TH>
<TD><A title="November 10" href="/wiki/November_10">November 10</A>, <A title=1938 href="/wiki/1938">1938</A>
<A title=Istanbul href="/wiki/Istanbul">Istanbul</A></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TH>Political party</TH>
<TD></TD></TR>
<TR class=hiddenStructure>
<TH>Constituency</TH>
<TD></TD></TR>
<TR class=hiddenStructure>
<TH>Spouse</TH>
<TD></TD></TR>
<TR class=hiddenStructure>
<TH>Religion</TH>
<TD></TD></TR>
<TR>
<TD style="BORDER-TOP: 1px solid; FONT-SIZE: smaller" colSpan=2></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE>
<P><B>Mustafa Kemal Atatürk</B> (<A title=1881 href="/wiki/1881">1881</A>–<A title="November 10" href="/wiki/November_10">10 November</A> <A title=1938 href="/wiki/1938">1938</A>), until <A title=1934 href="/wiki/1934">1934</A> <B>Mustafa Kemal</B>, <A title=Turkey href="/wiki/Turkey">Turkish</A> army officer and revolutionist statesman, was the founder and first President of the <A title="Republic of Turkey" href="/wiki/Republic_of_Turkey">Republic of Turkey</A>. Kemal promptly established himself as a successful military commander as a division commander in the the <A title="Battle of Gallipoli" href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gallipoli">Battle of Gallipoli</A>. Following the defeat of the <A title="Ottoman Empire" href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire">Ottoman Empire</A> at the hands of the Allies, and the subsequent plans for its partition, Kemal led the <A title="Turkish National Movement" href="/wiki/Turkish_National_Movement">Turkish national movement</A> in what would become the <A title="Turkish War of Independence" href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence">Turkish War of Independence</A>. His successful campaigns led to the liberation of the country and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey. As the Republic's first president, Kemal introduced a range of far reaching reforms which sought to create a modern and democratic state. According to the Law on Family Names, the Turkish Grand Assembly presented Kemal with the name "Atatürk" (meaning Father of the Turks) on <A title="November 24" href="/wiki/November_24">24 November</A> 1934.</P>
<TABLE class=toc id=toc summary=Contents>
<TBODY>
<TR>
<TD>
<DIV id=toctitle>
<H2>Contents</H2> <SPAN class=toctoggle>[<A class=internal id=togglelink href="javascript:toggleToc()">hide</A>]</SPAN></DIV>
<UL>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Early_Life"><SPAN class=tocnumber>1</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Early Life</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Military_Career"><SPAN class=tocnumber>2</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Military Career</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Gelibolu_.28Gallipoli.29"><SPAN class=tocnumber>2.1</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Gelibolu (Gallipoli)</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Final_WWI_years"><SPAN class=tocnumber>2.2</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Final WWI years</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Turkish_Emancipation"><SPAN class=tocnumber>2.3</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Turkish Emancipation</SPAN></A> </LI></UL>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Post_war_life_and_reforms"><SPAN class=tocnumber>3</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Post war life and reforms</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Political_consolidation"><SPAN class=tocnumber>3.1</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Political consolidation</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Cultural_reform"><SPAN class=tocnumber>3.2</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Cultural reform</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Women.27s_rights"><SPAN class=tocnumber>3.3</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Women's rights</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Culture_and_the_Arts"><SPAN class=tocnumber>3.4</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Culture and the Arts</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Legacy"><SPAN class=tocnumber>3.5</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Legacy</SPAN></A> </LI></UL>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#See_also"><SPAN class=tocnumber>4</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>See also</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#References"><SPAN class=tocnumber>5</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>References</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#External_links"><SPAN class=tocnumber>6</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>External links</SPAN></A> </LI></UL></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE>
<P>
<SCRIPT type=text/javascript>
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</SCRIPT>
</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Kemal Atatürk" href="/w/index.php?title=Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk&action=edit&section=1">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Early_Life name=Early_Life></A></P>
<H2>Early Life</H2>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 202px"><A class=internal title="Atatürk on the front of TIME magazine" href="/wiki/Image:Time_Ataturk.JPG"><IMG height=264 alt="Atatürk on the front of TIME magazine" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1f/Time_Ataturk.JPG/200px-Time_Ataturk.JPG" width=200 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Time_Ataturk.JPG></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Time_Ataturk.JPG"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Atatürk on the front of <A title="Time (magazine)" href="/wiki/Time_%28magazine%29">TIME magazine</A></DIV></DIV></DIV>
<P>Atatürk was born in 1881, in <A title=Thessaloníki href="/wiki/Thessalon%C3%ADki">Thessaloníki</A> <A title=Greece href="/wiki/Greece">Greece</A>, the son of a minor official who became a timber merchant. Where his birthplace is commemorated by a museum at the present day Turkish Consulate. In accordance with the then prevalent Turkish custom, he was given the single name <B>Mustafa</B>. His father, Ali Rıza, was a customs officer who died when Mustafa was seven. As such, it was left to his mother <A title="Zübeyde Hanım" href="/wiki/Z%C3%BCbeyde_Han%C4%B1m">Zübeyde Hanım</A> to bring the young Mustafa up.</P>
<P>When Atatürk was 12 years old, he went to military schools in <A title=Salonica href="/wiki/Salonica">Salonica</A> and <A title=Monastir href="/wiki/Monastir">Monastir</A>, centres of anti-Turkish Greek <A title=Nationalism href="/wiki/Nationalism">nationalism</A>. Mustafa studied at the military secondary school in Selânik, where the additional name Kemal ("perfection") was bestowed on him by his <A title=Mathematics href="/wiki/Mathematics">mathematics</A> teacher in recognition of his academic brilliance. Mustafa Kemal entered the military academy at <A title=Manastır href="/wiki/Manast%C4%B1r">Manastır</A> (now <A title=Bitola href="/wiki/Bitola">Bitola</A>) in 1895. He graduated as a lieutenant in 1905 and was posted to <A title=Damascus href="/wiki/Damascus">Damascus</A>. In Damascus, he soon joined a small secret revolutionary society of reform-minded officers called <I>Vatan ve Hürriyet</I> (Motherland and Liberty), and became an active opponent of the <A title="Ottoman Empire" href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire">Ottoman</A> regime. In 1907 he was posted to Selânik and joined the Committee of Union and Progress commonly known as the <A title="Young Turks" href="/wiki/Young_Turks">Young Turks</A>.</P>
<P>The Young Turks seized power from the Sultan <A title="Abdul Hamid II" href="/wiki/Abdul_Hamid_II">Abdul Hamid II</A> in 1908, and Mustafa Kemal became a senior military figure. In 1911, he went to the province of <A title=Libya href="/wiki/Libya">Libya</A> to take part in the defence against the <A title=Italy href="/wiki/Italy">Italian</A> invasion. During the first part of the <A title="Balkan Wars" href="/wiki/Balkan_Wars">Balkan Wars</A> Mustafa Kemal was stranded in <A title=Libya href="/wiki/Libya">Libya</A> and unable to take part, but in July 1913 he returned to <A title=Istanbul href="/wiki/Istanbul">Istanbul</A> and was appointed commander of the Ottoman defences of the <A title=Gallipoli href="/wiki/Gallipoli">Gallipoli</A> area on the coast of <A title=Thrace href="/wiki/Thrace">Thrace</A>. In 1914 he was appointed military attaché in <A title=Sofia href="/wiki/Sofia">Sofia</A>, partly to remove him from the capital and its political intrigues.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Kemal Atatürk" href="/w/index.php?title=Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk&action=edit&section=2">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Military_Career name=Military_Career></A></P>
<H2>Military Career</H2>
<P>When the Ottoman Empire entered <A title="World War I" href="/wiki/World_War_I">World War I</A> on the side of <A title=Germany href="/wiki/Germany">Germany</A>, Mustafa Kemal was posted to <A title=Tekirdağ href="/wiki/Tekirda%C4%9F">Tekirdağ</A> (on the <A title="Sea of Marmara" href="/wiki/Sea_of_Marmara">Sea of Marmara</A>).</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Kemal Atatürk" href="/w/index.php?title=Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk&action=edit&section=3">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Gelibolu_.28Gallipoli.29 name=Gelibolu_.28Gallipoli.29></A></P>
<H3>Gelibolu (Gallipoli)</H3>
<P>He was later promoted to the rank of colonel and assigned the command of a division in the <A title=Gallipoli href="/wiki/Gallipoli">Gallipoli</A> (Turkish: "Gelibolu") area. He played a critical role in the battle against the allied <A title="United Kingdom" href="/wiki/United_Kingdom">British</A>, <A title=France href="/wiki/France">French</A> and <A title=ANZAC href="/wiki/ANZAC">ANZAC</A> forces during the <A title="Battle of Gallipoli" href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gallipoli">Battle of Gallipoli</A> in April 1915, where he held off allied forces at <A class=new title=Conkbayırı href="/w/index.php?title=Conkbay%C4%B1r%C4%B1&action=edit">Conkbayırı</A> and on the Anafarta hills. For this success, he was later promoted to the rank of Brigadier General, thus acquiring the title of <A title=Pasha href="/wiki/Pasha">pasha</A> and gained increasingly greater degrees of influence on the war effort.</P>
<P>Kemal gained much respect from his former enemies for his chivalry in victory, the <A title="Kemal Atatürk Memorial" href="/wiki/Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk_Memorial">Kemal Atatürk Memorial</A> has an honoured place on ANZAC Parade in <A title=Canberra href="/wiki/Canberra">Canberra</A>. It includes his words:</P>
<DL>
<DD>"Those heroes that shed their blood and lost their lives... you are now lying in the soil of a friendly country. Therefore rest in peace. There is no difference between the Johnnies and the Mehmets to us where they lie side by side here in this country of ours... You the mothers who sent their sons from far away countries wipe away your tears. Your sons are now living in our lands and are in peace. Having lost their lives on this land they have become our sons as well." </DD></DL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Kemal Atatürk" href="/w/index.php?title=Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk&action=edit&section=4">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Final_WWI_years name=Final_WWI_years></A></P>
<H3>Final WWI years</H3>
<P>During 1917 and 1918 Mustafa Kemal was sent to the <A title=Caucasus href="/wiki/Caucasus">Caucasus</A> (Kafkaslar) front to fight against <A title="Russian Empire" href="/wiki/Russian_Empire">Russian</A> forces, against which he had some success. He was later assigned to the <A title=Hejaz href="/wiki/Hejaz">Hejaz</A> (Hicaz), to suppress the <A title="Arab Revolt" href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt">Arab Revolt</A> (which was supported by Great Britain) against Ottoman rule. After resigning his commission, he eventually returned to serve in the unsuccessful defense of <A title="British Mandate of Palestine" href="/wiki/British_Mandate_of_Palestine">Palestine</A>. In October 1918 the Ottomans capitulated to the Allies, and Mustafa Kemal became one of the leaders of the party in favour of defending the area roughly occupied by present day <A title=Turkey href="/wiki/Turkey">Turkey</A>, while agreeing to withdraw from all the non-Turkish territories.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Kemal Atatürk" href="/w/index.php?title=Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk&action=edit&section=5">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Turkish_Emancipation name=Turkish_Emancipation></A></P>
<H3>Turkish Emancipation</H3>
<DL>
<DD><I>For more details on this topic, see <A title="Turkish War of Independence" href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence">Turkish War of Independence</A>.</I> </DD></DL>
<P>As the Allies started to occupy Ottoman Empire, the <A title="Turkish Revolutionaries" href="/wiki/Turkish_Revolutionaries">Turkish Revolutionaries</A> begin to show resistance. Among many "Kuva-i Milliye" (en:"National Force") movements, what will be called as <A title="Turkish War of Independence" href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence">Turkish War of Independence</A>, was organized by the Mustafa Kemal.</P>
<P>Mustafa Kemal's leadership began with the arrangement of being sent to <A title=Samsun href="/wiki/Samsun">Samsun</A>, with extraordinary powers, as an Inspector of the XIX<SUP>th</SUP> Army, which this title did not last too long. Once in Anatolia, interpreting his extraordinary powers liberally, he contacted and started issuing orders to provincial governors and military commanders and called everyone to resist occupation. In June 1919, he and his close friends issued a declaration, later to be called <A title="Turkish War of Independence" href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence#Amasya_Agreement">Declaration of Amasya</A>, claiming Istanbul government held no legitimate authority. Other political moves coordinated by him promoted the idea of <A title=Government-in-exile href="/wiki/Government-in-exile">government-in-exile</A> should be established in Anatolia. Ottoman goverment reacted severly and ordered him to be killed. However, his ability to mobilize people ended with a new Parliament, the Grand National Assembly, which was formed in <A title=Ankara href="/wiki/Ankara">Ankara</A>, in April 1920, offering Kemal Pasha the title 'President of the National Assembly'. This body repudiated the Sultan's government in Istanbul and refused to recognize the Treaty of Sèvres.</P>
<DL>
<DD><I>For more details on this topic, see</I> <A title="Turkish War of Independence" href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence#Jurisdictional_Conflict_.28March_1920_-_March_1922.29">Jurisdictional Conflict</A> </DD></DL>
<P>On the military front, the conflict between nationalist movement and <A title="Triple Entente" href="/wiki/Triple_Entente">Triple Entente</A> powers went on three fronts. Which one of them with the <A title=Greece href="/wiki/Greece">Greece</A> (west front), where Turkish forces fell back in good order to the <A title=Sakarya href="/wiki/Sakarya">Sakarya</A> river, eighty kilometres from Grand National Assembly. Atatürk took personal command and decisively defeated the Greeks in the twenty day <A title="Battle of Sakarya" href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sakarya">Battle of Sakarya</A> in August-September 1921. Final victory over the Greeks came in the <A title="Battle of Dumlupinar" href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dumlupinar">Battle of Dumlupinar</A> in August 1922.</P>
<DL>
<DD><I>For more details on this topic, see</I> <A title="Turkish War of Independence" href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence#Theatres_of_the_War">Theatres of the War</A> </DD></DL>
<P>On the political front, Kemal Pasha signed the <A title="Treaty of Kars" href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Kars">Treaty of Kars</A> (<A title="October 23" href="/wiki/October_23">October 23</A>, <A title=1921 href="/wiki/1921">1921</A>) with the <A title="Soviet Union" href="/wiki/Soviet_Union">Soviet Union</A>, a treaty of friendship in which Turkey ceded the city of <A title=Batumi href="/wiki/Batumi">Batumi</A>, in present-day <A title="Georgia (country)" href="/wiki/Georgia_%28country%29">Georgia</A>, to <A title=Lenin href="/wiki/Lenin">Lenin</A>'s <A title=Bolsheviks href="/wiki/Bolsheviks">Bolsheviks</A> in return for sovereignty over the cities of <A title=Kars href="/wiki/Kars">Kars</A> and <A title=Ardahan href="/wiki/Ardahan">Ardahan</A>, which were lost to <A title="Tsarist Russia" href="/wiki/Tsarist_Russia">Tsarist Russia</A> in <A title="Russo-Turkish War, 1877-1878" href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War%2C_1877-1878">Russo-Turkish War, 1877-1878</A>.</P>
<DL>
<DD><I>For more details on this topic, see</I> <A title="Turkish War of Independence" href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence#Stage_for_Peace_.28March_1922-_April_1923.29">Stage for Peace</A> </DD></DL>
<P>Kemal Pasha's victory in the <A title="Turkish War of Independence" href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence">Turkish War of Independence</A> assured Turkey's sovereignty. He ushered the <A title="Treaty of Lausanne" href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lausanne">Treaty of Lausanne</A>, through which Turkey finally entered a period of peace after a disastrous decade of warfare, despite <A title=Irredentist href="/wiki/Irredentist">irredentist</A> opposition in the National Assembly and elsewhere.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Kemal Atatürk" href="/w/index.php?title=Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk&action=edit&section=6">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Post_war_life_and_reforms name=Post_war_life_and_reforms></A></P>
<H2>Post war life and reforms</H2>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Kemal Atatürk" href="/w/index.php?title=Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk&action=edit&section=7">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Political_consolidation name=Political_consolidation></A></P>
<H3>Political consolidation</H3>
<DIV class=floatleft><SPAN><A class=image title="" href="/wiki/Image:Kemal_Ataturk_hat.png"><IMG height=233 alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Kemal_Ataturk_hat.png/200px-Kemal_Ataturk_hat.png" width=200 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Kemal_Ataturk_hat.png></A></SPAN></DIV>
<P>Kemal Pasha spent the next several years consolidating his control over Turkey and instituting a variety of wide-ranging political, economic and social reforms. These reforms caused some opposition in the <A title="Republican People's Party" href="/wiki/Republican_People%27s_Party">Republican People's Party</A> ("Cumhuriyet Halk Fırkası" in Turkish) which was founded by Mustafa Kemal in September 9th 1923. Then Mustafa Kemal directed General <A title="Kazım Karabekir" href="/wiki/Kaz%C4%B1m_Karabekir">Kazım Karabekir</A> to establish the Progressive Republican Party ("Terakkiperver Cumhuriyet Fırkası" in Turkish) for opposition in Turkish National Assembly. This party opposed <A title="State socialism" href="/wiki/State_socialism">state socialism</A> of the Republican People's Party and suggested <A title=Liberalism href="/wiki/Liberalism">liberalism</A>. But after some time, the new party was taken over by people Ataturk considered fundamentalists. In 1925, partly in response to the provocations of <A class=new title="Sheikh Said" href="/w/index.php?title=Sheikh_Said&action=edit">Sheikh Said</A>, the Maintenance of Order Law was passed, giving Ataturk the authority to shut down subversive groups. The Republican People's Party was quickly disestablished under the new law, an act seen by some as necessary for preserving the Turkish state, but seen by others as the act of a <A title=Dictator href="/wiki/Dictator">dictator</A>.</P>
<P>On August 11th, 1930 Mustafa Kemal decided to try a democratic movement once again. He charged <A class=new title="Ali Fethi Okyar" href="/w/index.php?title=Ali_Fethi_Okyar&action=edit">Ali Fethi Okyar</A> with establishing a new party. In Mustafa Kemal's letter to Ali Fethi Okyar, <A title=Laicism href="/wiki/Laicism">laicism</A> was insisted on. At first, the brand new <A class=new title="Liberal Republican Party (Turkey)" href="/w/index.php?title=Liberal_Republican_Party_%28Turkey%29&action=edit">Liberal Republican Party</A> succeeded all around the country. But once again the opposition party became too strong in its opposition to Atatürk's reforms, particularly in regard to the role of religion in public life. Finally Ali Fethi Okyar abolished his own party and Mustafa Kemal never succeeded in democratising the parliamentary system.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Kemal Atatürk" href="/w/index.php?title=Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk&action=edit&section=8">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Cultural_reform name=Cultural_reform></A></P>
<H3>Cultural reform</H3>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 242px"><A class=internal title="Introduction of the Latin alphabet for Turkish" href="/wiki/Image:Ataturk_Alfabe.gif"><IMG height=348 alt="Introduction of the Latin alphabet for Turkish" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Ataturk_Alfabe.gif/240px-Ataturk_Alfabe.gif" width=240 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Ataturk_Alfabe.gif></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Ataturk_Alfabe.gif"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Introduction of the Latin alphabet for Turkish</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<P>Mustafa Kemal regarded the <A title="Fez (clothing)" href="/wiki/Fez_%28clothing%29">fez</A> (which Sultan Mahmud II had originally introduced to the Ottoman Empire's dress code in 1826) as a symbol of <A title=Feudalism href="/wiki/Feudalism">feudalism</A> and banned it, encouraging Turkish men to wear European attire. The hijab (scarf which covers the head) for women, while never formally banned, was strongly discouraged; and women were encouraged to wear western apparel and enter the country's workforce. From 1926, the <A title="Islamic calendar" href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar">Islamic calendar</A> was replaced with the <A title="Gregorian calendar" href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar">Gregorian calendar</A>. In 1928 the government decreed that the <A title="Arabic alphabet" href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet">Arabic script</A> be replaced by a modified <A title="Latin alphabet" href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet">Latin alphabet</A>, and citizens between the ages of six and forty were required to attend school and learn the new alphabet. The conservative clergy fiercely opposed these reforms, trying in vain to maintain its traditionally strong influence. As a result of the reforms literacy increased dramatically. The reforms also included extensive removal of Arabic and Persian words from the Turkish language. Mustafa Kemal opened new schools, where, as part of the curriculum, fine arts were taught to boys as well as girls. Girls had traditionally been excluded entirely from education, compulsory primary education was introduced for children of both sexes.</P>
<P>Notwithstanding the strong Islamic proscription against <A title="Alcoholic beverages" href="/wiki/Alcoholic_beverages">alcoholic beverages</A>, he encouraged domestic production and established a state-owned spirits industry. Mustafa Kemal had an appreciation for the national liquor, <A title="Raki (alcoholic beverage)" href="/wiki/Raki_%28alcoholic_beverage%29">rakı</A>, and consumed vast quantities of it.</P>
<DIV class="thumb tleft">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 102px"><A class=internal title="He was briefly married to Latife Uşaklıgil between 1923 and 1925. " href="/wiki/Image:LatifeUsakligil_MustafaKemalAtaturk.gif"><IMG height=146 alt="He was briefly married to Latife Uşaklıgil between 1923 and 1925. " src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/LatifeUsakligil_MustafaKemalAtaturk.gif/100px-LatifeUsakligil_MustafaKemalAtaturk.gif" width=100 longDesc=/wiki/Image:LatifeUsakligil_MustafaKemalAtaturk.gif></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:LatifeUsakligil_MustafaKemalAtaturk.gif"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>He was briefly married to <A title="Latife Uşaklıgil" href="/wiki/Latife_U%C5%9Fakl%C4%B1gil">Latife Uşaklıgil</A> between 1923 and 1925.</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<P>In 1934 he promulgated a law requiring all Turks to adopt surnames. The <A title="Grand National Assembly of Turkey" href="/wiki/Grand_National_Assembly_of_Turkey">Grand National Assembly</A> gave him the deferential name Atatürk, meaning "Father of Turks," and assumption of that name by other men is still forbidden by law.</P>
<P>Seeking to limit the influence of <A title=Islam href="/wiki/Islam">Islam</A> on Turkish political and cultural institutions, which he regarded as one of the principal causes impeding Turkish development, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk abolished the 1300-year-old Islamic <A title=Caliphate href="/wiki/Caliphate">caliphate</A> on 3 March 1924 and established a western-style <A title="Separation of church and state" href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state">separation of church and state</A> ("mosque" and state) in Turkey. While promoting a secular Turkish state, Atatürk maintained the traditional Ottoman tolerance of religious diversity and freedoms, but viewed these freedoms in the western Enlightenment sense of freedom of conscience.</P>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 182px"><A class=internal title="Atatürk praying at the opening of the TBMM" href="/wiki/Image:Preyingataturk.jpg"><IMG height=108 alt="Atatürk praying at the opening of the TBMM" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Preyingataturk.jpg/180px-Preyingataturk.jpg" width=180 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Preyingataturk.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Preyingataturk.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Atatürk praying at the opening of the <A title=TBMM href="/wiki/TBMM">TBMM</A></DIV></DIV></DIV>
<P>Atatürk himself was Muslim. In the book <I>Kemalizm, Laiklik ve Demokrasi</I> (<I>Kemalism, Laicism and Democracy</I>), Ahmet Taner Kışlalı quotes from a speech of Atatürk that may reveal some of the reasoning behind his support of the separation of Religion and state:</P>
<BLOCKQUOTE>
<P>"Religion is an important institution. A nation without religion cannot survive. Yet it is also very important to note that religion is a link between Allah and the individual believer. The brokerage of the pious cannot be permitted. Those who use religion for their own benefit are detestable. We are against such a situation and will not allow it. Those who use religion in such a manner have fooled our people; it is against just such people that we have fought and will continue to fight. Know that whatever conforms to reason, logic, and the advantages and needs of our people conforms equally to <A title=Islam href="/wiki/Islam">Islam</A>. If our religion did not conform to reason and logic, it would not be the perfect religion, the ultimate religion" (31).</P></BLOCKQUOTE>
<P>Such thoughts would seem to buttress the statement of Atatürk's biographer, <A title="John Patrick Douglas Balfour, 3rd Baron Kinross" href="/wiki/John_Patrick_Douglas_Balfour%2C_3rd_Baron_Kinross">Patrick Kinross</A>, concerning how Atatürk — who prized science and rationalism as the basis of morality and philosophy — considered himself a rational believer of Islam in that Islam could complement science and rational thinking. The quote also shows how strongly Atatürk was opposed to fanaticism ("the pious"). Another speech quoted by Kışlalı relates Atatürk's thoughts on how Islam came to be in such a degenerate state:</P>
<BLOCKQUOTE>
<P>"The foundation of our religion is very strong. The material is strong as well, but the building itself was neglected for hundreds of years. As the plaster dropped down, none thought to replace it and none felt the need to reinforce the building. Quite the contrary: many foreign elements and interpretations, as well as empty beliefs, came along and damaged it still more" (<I>ibid.</I>).</P></BLOCKQUOTE>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Kemal Atatürk" href="/w/index.php?title=Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk&action=edit&section=9">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Women.27s_rights name=Women.27s_rights></A></P>
<H3>Women's rights</H3>
<P>With abiding faith in the vital importance of women in society, Atatürk launched many reforms to give Turkish women equal rights and opportunities. The new Civil Code, adopted in 1927, abolished polygamy and recognized the equal rights of women in divorce, custody, and inheritance. The entire educational system from the grade school to the university became coeducational. Atatürk greatly admired the support that the national liberation struggle received from women and praised their many contributions: "In Turkish society, women have not lagged behind men in science, scholarship, and culture. Perhaps they have even gone further ahead." He gave women the same opportunities as men, including full political rights. In the mid-1930s, 18 women, among them a villager, were elected to the national parliament. Later, Turkey had the world's first female Supreme Court justice.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Kemal Atatürk" href="/w/index.php?title=Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk&action=edit&section=10">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Culture_and_the_Arts name=Culture_and_the_Arts></A></P>
<H3>Culture and the Arts</H3>
<P>Atatürk once stated: "Culture is the foundation of the Turkish Republic." His view of culture included both his own nation's creative legacy and what he saw as the more admirable values of world civilization, and he put an emphasis on humanism above all. He once described modern Turkey's ideological thrust as "a creation of patriotism blended with a lofty humanist ideal."</P>
<P>So as to assist in the creation of such a synthesis, Atatürk stressed the need to utilize the elements of the national heritage of the Turks and of Anatolia—including its ancient indigenous cultures—as well as the arts and techniques of other world civilizations, both past and present. He emphasized the study of earlier Anatolian civilizations, such as the Hittites, Phrygians, and Lydians. The pre-Islamic culture of the Turks became the subject of extensive research, and particular emphasis was laid upon the fact that—long before the Seljuk and Ottoman civilizations—the Turks had had a rich culture. Atatürk also stressed the folk arts of the countryside as a wellspring of Turkish creativity.</P>
<P>The visual and the plastic arts—whose development had on occasion been arrested by some Ottoman officials claiming that the depiction of the human form was idolatry—flourished during the presidency of Atatürk. Many museums were opened; architecture began to follow more modern trends; and classical Western music, opera, and ballet, as well as the theatre, also took greater hold. Several hundred "People's Houses" and "People's Rooms" across the country allowed greater access to a wide variety of artistic activities, sports, and other cultural events. Book and magazine publications increased as well, and the film industry began to grow.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Kemal Atatürk" href="/w/index.php?title=Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk&action=edit&section=11">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Legacy name=Legacy></A></P>
<H3>Legacy</H3>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 282px"><A class=internal title="Anitkabir, Kemal Ataturk's mausoleum at Ankara" href="/wiki/Image:Anitkabir.DO.jpg"><IMG height=186 alt="Anitkabir, Kemal Ataturk's mausoleum at Ankara" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/Anitkabir.DO.jpg/280px-Anitkabir.DO.jpg" width=280 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Anitkabir.DO.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Anitkabir.DO.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV><A title=Anitkabir href="/wiki/Anitkabir">Anitkabir</A>, Kemal Ataturk's <A title=Mausoleum href="/wiki/Mausoleum">mausoleum</A> at <A title=Ankara href="/wiki/Ankara">Ankara</A></DIV></DIV></DIV>
<P>Atatürk died in 1938 of <A title=Cirrhosis href="/wiki/Cirrhosis">cirrhosis</A>. His lifestyle had always been strenuous. Alcohol consumption, smoking and very long hours hard at work were part of his way of life.</P>
<P>His successor, <A title="İsmet İnönü" href="/wiki/%C4%B0smet_%C4%B0n%C3%B6n%C3%BC">İsmet İnönü</A>, fostered a posthumous Atatürk <A title="Personality cult" href="/wiki/Personality_cult">personality cult</A> which has survived to this day, even after Atatürk's own Republican People's Party lost power following democratic elections in 1950. Atatürk's face and name are seen and heard everywhere in Turkey: his portrait can be seen in all public buildings,in schools , in all kind of school books, on all Turkish banknotes, and even in the homes of many Turkish families - who often seem to consider him a secular sort of saint.</P>
<P>He is commemorated by many memorials all over Turkey, like the <A title="Atatürk International Airport" href="/wiki/Atat%C3%BCrk_International_Airport">Atatürk International Airport</A> in <A title=Istanbul href="/wiki/Istanbul">Istanbul</A>, the <A class=new title="Atatürk Bridge" href="/w/index.php?title=Atat%C3%BCrk_Bridge&action=edit">Atatürk Bridge</A> over the <A title="Golden Horn" href="/wiki/Golden_Horn">Golden Horn</A> (Haliç), Atatürk Dam (4. biggest dam of world) as well as the <A title="Atatürk Olimpiyat Stadyumu" href="/wiki/Atat%C3%BCrk_Olimpiyat_Stadyumu">Ataturk Stadium</A>. Giant Atatürk statues loom over <A title=Istanbul href="/wiki/Istanbul">Istanbul</A> and other Turkish cities, and practically any larger settlement has its own memorial to him. In 1951, the Turkish Parliament issued a law (5816) outlawing insults to his legacy or attacks to objects representing him. This law is sometimes criticised as it applies solely to Atatürk, thus resembling leader-protecting laws of dictatorial regimes.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Kemal Atatürk" href="/w/index.php?title=Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk&action=edit&section=12">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=See_also name=See_also></A></P>
<H2>See also</H2>
<UL>
<LI><A title="Atatürk's reforms" href="/wiki/Atat%C3%BCrk%27s_reforms">Atatürk's reforms</A>
<LI><A title="Kemalist Ideology" href="/wiki/Kemalist_Ideology">Kemalism</A>
<LI><A title="Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)" href="/wiki/Greco-Turkish_War_%281919-1922%29">Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)</A> </LI></UL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Kemal Atatürk" href="/w/index.php?title=Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk&action=edit&section=13">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=References name=References></A></P>
<H2>References</H2>
<UL>
<LI><CITE style="FONT-STYLE: normal"><A title="John Patrick Douglas Balfour, 3rd Baron Kinross" href="/wiki/John_Patrick_Douglas_Balfour%2C_3rd_Baron_Kinross">Kinross, Patrick</A> (2003). <I>Ataturk: The Rebirth of a Nation</I>, Phoenix Press. <A class=internal href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=1842125990">ISBN 1-84212-599-0</A>.</CITE>
<LI><CITE style="FONT-STYLE: normal"><A title="Andrew Mango" href="/wiki/Andrew_Mango">Mango, Andrew</A> (2004). <I>Ataturk</I>, John Murray. <A class=internal href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0719565928">ISBN 0719565928</A>.</CITE> </LI></UL>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title="Kemal Atatürk" href="/w/index.php?title=Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk&action=edit&section=14">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=External_links name=External_links></A></P>
<H2>External links</H2>
<DIV class="infobox sisterproject">
<DIV class=floatleft><SPAN><A class=image title=" " href="/wiki/Image:Wikiquote-logo-en.png"><IMG height=50 alt=" " src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Wikiquote-logo-en.png/50px-Wikiquote-logo-en.png" width=50 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Wikiquote-logo-en.png></A></SPAN></DIV>
<DIV style="MARGIN-LEFT: 60px"><A title=Wikiquote href="/wiki/Wikiquote">Wikiquote</A> has a collection of quotations related to:
<DIV style="MARGIN-LEFT: 10px"><I><B><A class=extiw title="wikiquote:Special:Search/Kemal Atatürk" href="http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk">Kemal Atatürk</A></B></I></DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class="infobox sisterproject">
<DIV class=floatleft><SPAN><A class=image title=" " href="/wiki/Image:Commons-logo.svg"><IMG height=60 alt=" " src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png" width=45 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Commons-logo.svg></A></SPAN></DIV>
<DIV style="MARGIN-LEFT: 60px"><A title="Wikimedia Commons" href="/wiki/Wikimedia_Commons">Wikimedia Commons</A> has media related to:
<DIV style="MARGIN-LEFT: 10px"><I><B><A class=extiw title="commons:Mustafa Kemal Atatürk" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk">Mustafa Kemal Atatürk</A></B></I></DIV></DIV></DIV>
<UL>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.ataturk.net href="http://www.ataturk.net">Ataturk.net, a website dedicated to Atatürk</A>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.turkishembassy.org.au/ataturk/ataturk.htm href="http://www.turkishembassy.org.au/ataturk/ataturk.htm">His biography and reforms</A>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://tadevrimi.sitemynet.com/ingilizce.htm href="http://tadevrimi.sitemynet.com/ingilizce.htm">Quotes of and quotes on Atatürk</A>
<LI><A class="external text" title="http://www.kulturturizm.gov.tr/portal/default en.asp?belgeno=4602" href="http://www.kulturturizm.gov.tr/portal/default_en.asp?belgeno=4602">Atatürk Gallery by the Ministry of Culture, Republic of Turkey</A>
<LI><A class="external text" title="http://www.kulturturizm.gov.tr/portal/default en.asp?belgeno=4601" href="http://www.kulturturizm.gov.tr/portal/default_en.asp?belgeno=4601">Biography, the Revolutions and a speech excerpt from the Ministry of Culture, Republic of Turkey</A>
<LI><A class="external text" title=http://www.turkishnews.com/Ataturk/life.htm href="http://www.turkishnews.com/Ataturk/life.htm">www.turkishnews.com/Ataturk/life.htm Turkishnews.com - Ataturk's life</A> </LI></UL>
<P>
</P>
<TABLE class=wikitable style="CLEAR: both; FONT-SIZE: 95%; MARGIN: 0.5em auto">
<TBODY>
<TR style="TEXT-ALIGN: center">
<TD align=middle width="30%" rowSpan={{{rows}}}>Preceded by:
<B>-</B></TD>
<TD style="TEXT-ALIGN: center" width="40%" rowSpan={{{rows}}}><B><A title="List of Presidents of Turkey" href="/wiki/List_of_Presidents_of_Turkey">President of Turkey</A></B>
1923–1938</TD>
<TD align=middle width="30%" rowSpan={{{rows}}}>Succeeded by:
<B><A title="Ismet Inönü" href="/wiki/Ismet_In%C3%B6n%C3%BC">İsmet İnönü</A></B></TD></TR>
<TR style="TEXT-ALIGN: center">
<TD align=middle width="30%" rowSpan={{{rows}}}>Preceded by:
<B>-</B></TD>
<TD style="TEXT-ALIGN: center" width="40%" rowSpan={{{rows}}}><B><A title="List of Prime Ministers of Turkey" href="/wiki/List_of_Prime_Ministers_of_Turkey">Prime Minister of Turkey</A></B>
1920–1921</TD>
<TD align=middle width="30%" rowSpan={{{rows}}}>Succeeded by:
<B><A title="Fevzi Çakmak" href="/wiki/Fevzi_%C3%87akmak">Fevzi Çakmak</A></B></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE>
<P><SPAN class=FA id=el style="DISPLAY: none"></SPAN></P>
<P>
<SPAN class=FA id=eo style="DISPLAY: none"></SPAN></P>
<P><SPAN class=FA id=pt style="DISPLAY: none"></SPAN></P><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:1329090-0!1!0!0!!en!2 and timestamp 20060209181516 -->
<DIV class=printfooter>Retrieved from "<A href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk</A>"</DIV>
<DIV id=catlinks>
<P class=catlinks><A title=Special:Categories href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Categories&article=Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk">Categories</A>: <SPAN dir=ltr><A title="Category:1881 births" href="/wiki/Category:1881_births">1881 births</A></SPAN> | <SPAN dir=ltr><A title="Category:1938 deaths" href="/wiki/Category:1938_deaths">1938 deaths</A></SPAN> | <SPAN dir=ltr><A title="Category:Field Marshals" href="/wiki/Category:Field_Marshals">Field Marshals</A></SPAN> | <SPAN dir=ltr><A title=Category:Pashas href="/wiki/Category:Pashas">Pashas</A></SPAN> | <SPAN dir=ltr><A title="Category:Presidents of Turkey" href="/wiki/Category:Presidents_of_Turkey">Presidents of Turkey</A></SPAN> | <SPAN dir=ltr><A title="Category:Prime Ministers of Turkey" href="/wiki/Category:Prime_Ministers_of_Turkey">Prime Ministers of Turkey</A></SPAN> | <SPAN dir=ltr><A title="Category:Turkish politicians" href="/wiki/Category:Turkish_politicians">Turkish politicians</A></SPAN> | <SPAN dir=ltr><A title="Category:Turkish military people" href="/wiki/Category:Turkish_military_people">Turkish military people</A></SPAN> | <SPAN dir=ltr><A title="Category:World War I people" href="/wiki/Category:World_War_I_people">World War I people</A></SPAN></P></DIV><!-- end content -->
<DIV class=visualClear></DIV><div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/16266475-113952478005791540?l=encyclopediageneral.blogspot.com'/></div>Murat Alperennoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-16266475.post-1139524515426608152006-02-09T14:33:00.001-08:002006-02-09T14:35:15.430-08:00Window (disambiguation)Window (disambiguation)[EXTRACT]<H3 id=siteSub>From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</H3>
<DIV id=contentSub>(Redirected from <A title=Windows href="/w/index.php?title=Windows&redirect=no">Windows</A>)</DIV>
<DIV id=jump-to-nav>Jump to: <A href="#column-one">navigation</A>, <A href="#searchInput">search</A></DIV><!-- start content -->
<DIV class="notice metadata" id=disambig><I>This is a <A title=Wikipedia:Disambiguation href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Disambiguation">disambiguation</A> page: a list of articles associated with the same title. If an <A title="Special:Whatlinkshere/:Window (disambiguation)" href="/wiki/Special:Whatlinkshere/:Window_%28disambiguation%29">internal link</A> referred you to this page, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.</I></DIV>
<P>
</P>
<DIV class="infobox sisterproject">
<DIV style="FLOAT: left">
<DIV class=floatnone><SPAN><A class=image title="" href="/wiki/Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png"><IMG height=54 alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Wiktionary-logo-en.png/50px-Wiktionary-logo-en.png" width=50 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png></A></SPAN></DIV></DIV>
<DIV style="MARGIN-LEFT: 60px">Look up <I><B><A class=extiw title=wiktionary:window href="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/window">window</A></B></I> and <I><B><A class=extiw title=wiktionary:windows href="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/windows">windows</A></B></I> in <A title=Wiktionary href="/wiki/Wiktionary">Wiktionary</A>, the free dictionary.</DIV></DIV>
<P><B>Window</B> or <B>Windows</B> may refer to:</P>
<UL>
<LI><A title=Window href="/wiki/Window">Window</A>, an opening in an otherwise solid, opaque surface, through which light can pass
<LI><A title="Window (astronomy)" href="/wiki/Window_%28astronomy%29">Window (astronomy)</A>
<LI><A title="Window function" href="/wiki/Window_function">Window function</A>
<LI><A title="Window (radar countermeasure)" href="/wiki/Window_%28radar_countermeasure%29">Window (radar countermeasure)</A>
<LI><I><A title="Windows (film)" href="/wiki/Windows_%28film%29">Windows (film)</A></I>, a film released in 1980 </LI></UL>
<P>In <B>computing</B>:</P>
<UL>
<LI><A title=DECwindows href="/wiki/DECwindows">DECwindows</A>, a version of the desktop environment Common Desktop CDE
<LI><A title="Microsoft Windows" href="/wiki/Microsoft_Windows">Microsoft Windows</A>, a family of operating systems
<LI><A title=OpenWindows href="/wiki/OpenWindows">OpenWindows</A>, a GUI for the Solaris operating system
<LI><A title="Window (computing)" href="/wiki/Window_%28computing%29">Window (computing)</A>, a display rectangle used by a graphical user interface (GUI)
<LI><A title="X Window System" href="/wiki/X_Window_System">X Window System</A>, an underlying protocol for creating GUI windows </LI></UL><!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:1374065-0!1!0!0!!en!2 and timestamp 20060209214334 -->
<DIV class=printfooter>Retrieved from "<A href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window_%28disambiguation%29">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window_%28disambiguation%29</A>"</DIV>
<DIV id=catlinks>
<P class=catlinks><A title=Special:Categories href="/w/index.php?title=Special:Categories&article=Window_%28disambiguation%29">Category</A>: <SPAN dir=ltr><A title=Category:Disambiguation href="/wiki/Category:Disambiguation">Disambiguation</A></SPAN></P></DIV><!-- end content -->
<DIV class=visualClear></DIV><div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/16266475-113952451542660815?l=encyclopediageneral.blogspot.com'/></div>Murat Alperennoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-16266475.post-1139524447189439442006-02-09T14:33:00.000-08:002006-02-09T14:34:07.306-08:00<div class="blogger-post-footer"><img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/16266475-113952444718943944?l=encyclopediageneral.blogspot.com'/></div>Murat Alperennoreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-16266475.post-1139522335281258362006-02-09T13:03:00.010-08:002006-02-09T13:59:40.210-08:00İzmirİzmir[EXTRACT]<H3 id=siteSub>From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</H3>
<DIV id=contentSub></DIV>
<DIV id=jump-to-nav>Jump to: <A href="#column-one">navigation</A>, <A href="#searchInput">search</A></DIV><!-- start content -->
<DIV class="messagebox merge">
<DIV class=floatleft><SPAN><A class=image title="" href="/wiki/Image:Mergefrom.gif"><IMG height=20 alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Mergefrom.gif" width=50 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Mergefrom.gif></A></SPAN></DIV>It has been suggested that <I><A title=Smyrna href="/wiki/Smyrna">Smyrna</A></I> be <A title="Wikipedia:Merging and moving pages" href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Merging_and_moving_pages">merged</A> into this article or section. (<A title=Talk:İzmir href="/wiki/Talk:%C4%B0zmir">Discuss</A>)</DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 312px"><A class=internal title="Shows the Location of the Province İzmir" href="/wiki/Image:Izmir_Turkey_Provinces_locator.gif"><IMG height=140 alt="Shows the Location of the Province İzmir" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Izmir_Turkey_Provinces_locator.gif/310px-Izmir_Turkey_Provinces_locator.gif" width=310 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Izmir_Turkey_Provinces_locator.gif></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Izmir_Turkey_Provinces_locator.gif"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Shows the Location of the Province İzmir</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<P><B>İzmir</B>, the third most populous city of <A title=Turkey href="/wiki/Turkey">Turkey</A> and the country's largest port after <A title=Istanbul href="/wiki/Istanbul">İstanbul</A>, is located on the <A title="Aegean Sea" href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea">Aegean Sea</A> near the <A title="Gulf of Izmir" href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Izmir">Gulf of İzmir</A>. It is the capital of <A title="Izmir Province" href="/wiki/Izmir_Province">İzmir</A> <A title="Provinces of Turkey" href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Turkey">Province</A>. Its population was 2,409,000 in <A title=2000 href="/wiki/2000">2000</A> and 3,500,000 in <A title=2005 href="/wiki/2005">2005</A>.</P>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 312px"><A class=internal title="Izmir from space, June 1996" href="/wiki/Image:Izmir_turkey.jpg"><IMG height=310 alt="Izmir from space, June 1996" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Izmir_turkey.jpg/310px-Izmir_turkey.jpg" width=310 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Izmir_turkey.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Izmir_turkey.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Izmir from space, June 1996</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Republic Square of Izmir" href="/wiki/Image:Izmir_republic_square.jpg"><IMG height=179 alt="Republic Square of Izmir" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/Izmir_republic_square.jpg/300px-Izmir_republic_square.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Izmir_republic_square.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Izmir_republic_square.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Republic Square of Izmir</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="A view of The Kordon" href="/wiki/Image:Kordon05.jpg"><IMG height=200 alt="A view of The Kordon" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b0/Kordon05.jpg/300px-Kordon05.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Kordon05.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Kordon05.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>A view of The Kordon</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<TABLE class=toc id=toc summary=Contents>
<TBODY>
<TR>
<TD>
<DIV id=toctitle>
<H2>Contents</H2> <SPAN class=toctoggle>[<A class=internal id=togglelink href="javascript:toggleToc()">hide</A>]</SPAN></DIV>
<UL>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Name"><SPAN class=tocnumber>1</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Name</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#History"><SPAN class=tocnumber>2</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>History</SPAN></A>
<UL>
<LI class=toclevel-2><A href="#Homer"><SPAN class=tocnumber>2.1</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Homer</SPAN></A> </LI></UL>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#From_the_eighth_century_BC"><SPAN class=tocnumber>3</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>From the eighth century BC</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Smyrna_becomes_.C4.B0zmir"><SPAN class=tocnumber>4</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Smyrna becomes İzmir</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Modern_.C4.B0zmir"><SPAN class=tocnumber>5</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Modern İzmir</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Climate"><SPAN class=tocnumber>6</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Climate</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#.C4.B0zmir_International_Fair"><SPAN class=tocnumber>7</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>İzmir International Fair</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Birds_Paradise"><SPAN class=tocnumber>8</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Birds Paradise</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Cuisine_of_.C4.B0zmir"><SPAN class=tocnumber>9</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Cuisine of İzmir</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Festivals"><SPAN class=tocnumber>10</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Festivals</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Sports"><SPAN class=tocnumber>11</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Sports</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Education"><SPAN class=tocnumber>12</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Education</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Districts"><SPAN class=tocnumber>13</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Districts</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Reference"><SPAN class=tocnumber>14</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Reference</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#Media_and_art_mentioning_.C4.B0zmir"><SPAN class=tocnumber>15</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>Media and art mentioning İzmir</SPAN></A>
<LI class=toclevel-1><A href="#External_links"><SPAN class=tocnumber>16</SPAN> <SPAN class=toctext>External links</SPAN></A> </LI></UL></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE>
<P>
<SCRIPT type=text/javascript>
//<![CDATA[
if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); }
//]]>
</SCRIPT>
</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=İzmir href="/w/index.php?title=%C4%B0zmir&action=edit&section=1">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Name name=Name></A></P>
<H2>Name</H2>
<P>The oldest name we know for İzmir is the <A title="Aeolic Greek" href="/wiki/Aeolic_Greek">Aeolic Greek</A> Μύῥρα <I>Mýrrha</I>, corresponding to the later <A class=new title="Ionian Greek" href="/w/index.php?title=Ionian_Greek&action=edit">Ionian</A> and <A title="Attic Greek" href="/wiki/Attic_Greek">Attic</A> Σμύρνη <I>Smýrnē</I>, both presumably descendants of a <A title="Proto-Greek language" href="/wiki/Proto-Greek_language">Proto-Greek</A> form <I>*Smúrnā</I>. The <A title="Roman Empire" href="/wiki/Roman_Empire">Romans</A> took this name over as <I>Smyrna</I> which is the name used in <A title="English language" href="/wiki/English_language">English</A> for the pre-Turkish periods. The name İzmir is the <A title="Turkish language" href="/wiki/Turkish_language">Turkish</A> version of the <A title="Greek language" href="/wiki/Greek_language">Greek</A> expression η Σμύρνη "the Smyrna" (Greek uses a definite article for proper names) or perhaps εις Σμύρνη "to Smyrna" (<I>cf.</I> İstanbul), both pronounced [izmírni].</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=İzmir href="/w/index.php?title=%C4%B0zmir&action=edit&section=2">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=History name=History></A></P>
<H2>History</H2>
<DIV class=boilerplate id=npov>
<DL>
<DD><A class=image title=Stop! href="/wiki/Image:Stop_hand.svg"><IMG height=20 alt=Stop! src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Stop_hand.svg/20px-Stop_hand.svg.png" width=20 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Stop_hand.svg></A> <I>The factual accuracy of this section is <A title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute" href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute">disputed</A>. <FONT class=metadata>Please view the article's <A title=Talk:İzmir href="/wiki/Talk:%C4%B0zmir">talk page</A><A title=Template:Sectfact href="/wiki/Template:Sectfact">.</A></FONT></I> </DD></DL></DIV>
<DL>
<DD><I>Main article:<A title=Smyrna href="/wiki/Smyrna">Smyrna</A>.</I> </DD></DL>
<P>The 5000-year-old city that was formerly called Smyrna, is one of the oldest cities of the <A title="Mediterranean Sea" href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea">Mediterranean</A> basin. The original city was established in the third millennium B.C. (at present day Bayraklı, <A title=Karsiyaka href="/wiki/Karsiyaka">Karsiyaka</A>), at which time it shared with <A title=Troy href="/wiki/Troy">Troy</A> the most advanced culture in <A title=Anatolia href="/wiki/Anatolia">Anatolia</A>. By <A title="1500 BC" href="/wiki/1500_BC">1500 BC</A> it had fallen under the influence of <A title=Hittites href="/wiki/Hittites">Central Anatolian Hittite Empire</A>. Greek settlement is attested by the presence of pottery dating from about 1000 BC. According to the famous Greek historian <A title=Herodotus href="/wiki/Herodotus">Herodotus</A> (from <A title=Halicarnassus href="/wiki/Halicarnassus">Halicarnassus</A>, modern-day <A title=Bodrum href="/wiki/Bodrum">Bodrum</A>) the city was first established by the <A title=Aeolia href="/wiki/Aeolia">Aeolians</A>, but shortly thereafter seized by the <A title=Ionia href="/wiki/Ionia">Ionians</A> who developed it into one of the world's largest cultural and commercial centers of that period.</P>
<P>The original Myrrha was founded on an island at the northeast of the bay. During the recent centuries, Bornova Plain had been formed with the silt that was brought by torrents of River Meles from Mount Yamanlar (Sipylos) and the peninsula finally transformed into a hill. (A sample vineyard of İzmir Wine and Beer Factory of TEKEL Management is located on this hill called Tepekule.)</P>
<P>Although the first habitation of ancient Smyrna known to be dated from long before <A title="3000 BC" href="/wiki/3000_BC">3000 BC</A>, excavations could only go back to 3000 B.C. In the light of the excavations, it is known that the first settlements were founded at the top of the hill at 3-5m high from sea level. This first settlement was dated from <A class=new title="Ancient Bronze Age" href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Bronze_Age&action=edit">Ancient Bronze Age</A>.</P>
<P><A title=Hittite href="/wiki/Hittite">Hittites</A> were using the writing (in <A title="1800 BC" href="/wiki/1800_BC">1800</A> to <A title="1200 BC" href="/wiki/1200_BC">1200 BC</A>) in Anatolia, which helped to reach the historic ages. However, in 1200s BC, the tribes coming from <A title=Balkans href="/wiki/Balkans">Balkans</A> demolished Troy VII and <A title=Hattusas href="/wiki/Hattusas">Hattusas</A>, the capital of Hittites. With this, a <A title="Dark Age" href="/wiki/Dark_Age">Dark Age</A> during the <A title="Iron Age" href="/wiki/Iron_Age">Iron Age</A> restarted in Middle and West Anatolia. The Iron Age continued until writing was rediscovered in <A title="730 BC" href="/wiki/730_BC">730 BC</A> in <A title=Phrygia href="/wiki/Phrygia">Phrygia</A> and in <A title="650 BC" href="/wiki/650_BC">650 BC</A> in the rest of the Middle and West Anatolia.</P>
<P>During the Iron Age the houses were huge, small, one roomed buildings. The oldest house that has been finally brought to daylight is dated at <A title="925 BC" href="/wiki/925_BC">925</A> to <A title="900 BC" href="/wiki/900_BC">900 BC</A> The walls of this well-preserved one roomed house (2, 45 x 4 m) were all made of sun-dried <A title=Brick href="/wiki/Brick">bricks</A> and the roof of the house was made of <A title=Reed href="/wiki/Reed">reeds</A>.</P>
<P>People started to protect their hometown with thick <A title=Rampart href="/wiki/Rampart">ramparts</A> made of sun-dried bricks. From now on Smyrna achieved an identity of <A title=City-state href="/wiki/City-state">city-state</A>. A man called <A class=new title=Baseleus href="/w/index.php?title=Baseleus&action=edit">Baseleus</A> was most probably in charge of the city. Migrants and bigwigs constituted the <A title=Nobility href="/wiki/Nobility">noble class</A>. The population living inside the <A title="City wall" href="/wiki/City_wall">city walls</A> were approximately a thousand people. The public of city-state was living in near-by villages. The fields, <A title=Olive href="/wiki/Olive">olive</A> trees, <A title=Vineyard href="/wiki/Vineyard">vineyards</A>, and the workshops of potters and stonecutters of ancient Smyrna were all located in those villages. People made their living on <A title=Agriculture href="/wiki/Agriculture">agriculture</A> and <A title=Fishing href="/wiki/Fishing">fishing</A>.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=İzmir href="/w/index.php?title=%C4%B0zmir&action=edit&section=3">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Homer name=Homer></A></P>
<H3>Homer</H3>
<P><A title=Homer href="/wiki/Homer">Homer</A> is said to have been born in Smyrna. Seven cities claimed that Homer was their countryman. These cities are <A title=Salamis href="/wiki/Salamis">Salamis</A>, <A title=Argos href="/wiki/Argos">Argos</A>, <A title=Athens href="/wiki/Athens">Athens</A>, <A title=Rhodes href="/wiki/Rhodes">Rhodes</A>, <A title=Colophon href="/wiki/Colophon">Colophon</A>, <A title=Chios href="/wiki/Chios">Chios</A> and Smyrna, but the main belief is that Homer was born in Ionia; combined with written evidence, <A title=Chios href="/wiki/Chios">Chios</A> and Smyrna claim Homer.</P>
<P>The hymn to the Delian <A title=Apollo href="/wiki/Apollo">Apollo</A> ends with an address of the poet to his audience. When any stranger comes and asks who is the sweetest singer, they are to answer with one voice, "the blind man that dwells in rocky <A title=Chios href="/wiki/Chios">Chios</A>; his songs deserve the prize for all time to come." <A title=Thucydides href="/wiki/Thucydides">Thucydides</A>, who quotes this passage to show the ancient character of the Delian festival, seems to have no doubt of the Homeric authorship of the hymn.</P>
<P>A nickname of Homer was <I>Melesigenes</I> which means "Child of Meles Brook". Meles Brook is located within the territory of Smyrna. <A title=Aristotle href="/wiki/Aristotle">Aristotle</A> recounts: "<A class=new title=Kriteis href="/w/index.php?title=Kriteis&action=edit">Kriteis</A>... gives birth to Homer near Meles Brook and dies after. Maion brings this child up and names him as <I>Melesigenes</I> ("Child of Meles") to emphasize the place where he was born."</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=İzmir href="/w/index.php?title=%C4%B0zmir&action=edit&section=4">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=From_the_eighth_century_BC name=From_the_eighth_century_BC></A></P>
<H2>From the eighth century BC</H2>
<P>The most important sacred place of the town was the Temple of Athens. The oldest ruin preserved until today dates back to <A title="725 BC" href="/wiki/725_BC">725</A>-<A title="700 BC" href="/wiki/700_BC">700 BC</A></P>
<P>The period in which the city had reached its peak was between <A title="650 BC" href="/wiki/650_BC">650</A>-<A title="545 BC" href="/wiki/545_BC">545 BC</A>. This period lasted hundred-years and was considered to be the most powerful period of the whole Ionian civilization. Under the leadership of <A title=Miletus href="/wiki/Miletus">Miletus</A>, colonies were established in <A title=Egypt href="/wiki/Egypt">Egypt</A>, <A title=Syria href="/wiki/Syria">Syria</A>, west coasts of <A title=Lebanon href="/wiki/Lebanon">Lebanon</A>, <A title="Marmara region" href="/wiki/Marmara_region">Marmara region</A>, <A title="Black Sea" href="/wiki/Black_Sea">Black Sea</A> and eastern <A title=Greece href="/wiki/Greece">Greece</A> competed and replaced the place of <A class=new title="Greece proper" href="/w/index.php?title=Greece_proper&action=edit">Greece proper</A> in various fields and subjects. In this period, it is apparent that Smyrna not only dealed with <A title=Agriculture href="/wiki/Agriculture">agriculture</A> but also participated in Mediterranean trade.</P>
<P>One of the most important signs of that great period in ancient Smyrna is the spreading of writing out beginning with <A title="650 BC" href="/wiki/650_BC">650 BC</A> There were many presentation inscriptions in the gifts that were dedicated to goddess <A title=Athena href="/wiki/Athena">Athena</A>. Few people among the public were <A title=Literacy href="/wiki/Literacy">literate</A>. The temple of <A title=Athens href="/wiki/Athens">Athens</A> found in excavations dated back to <A title="640 BC" href="/wiki/640_BC">640</A>-<A title="580 BC" href="/wiki/580_BC">580 BC</A> The oldest and the most beautiful capitals have been found in İzmir.</P>
<P>The oldest model of many-roomed-type house of this period was found in ancient Smyrna. Known to be the oldest house having so many rooms under its roof, this house was built in the second half of <A title="7th century BC" href="/wiki/7th_century_BC">7th century BC</A> The house is two-floored and has five rooms with a courtyard. The houses before this type were composed of <A title=Megaron href="/wiki/Megaron">megarons</A> standing adjacent to each other. Smyrna was built on the <A title=Hippodamus href="/wiki/Hippodamus">Hippodamian</A> system in which streets intersect at right angles even in the second half of 7th century, the streets were lying from north to south, and from east to west directions and the houses all overlooked to the south.</P>
<P>This city plan, which would take the name of Hippodamus later in 5th century B.C., had already been known in <A title="Near East" href="/wiki/Near_East">Near East</A>. Bayraklı city plan is the earliest model of this type in the West. The oldest parquetry road of Ionian civilization was brought to daylight in ancient Smyrna.</P>
<P>The oldest civil work of <A title="Greek architecture" href="/wiki/Greek_architecture">Greek architecture</A> in ancient Smyrna is the beautiful stone <A title=Fountain href="/wiki/Fountain">fountain</A>, built in the first half of 7th century. Standing on <A class=new title="Mount Yamanlar" href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Yamanlar&action=edit">Mount Yamanlar</A>, the Tomb of <A title=Tantalus href="/wiki/Tantalus">Tantalus</A> is a beautiful sample of the <A title=Tholos href="/wiki/Tholos">tholos</A> type <A class=new title="Monumental tomb" href="/w/index.php?title=Monumental_tomb&action=edit">monumental tombs</A>. The grave room of Tantalus’ tumulus was in the plan of the mentioned fountain, displaying a style called <A class=new title=Isopata href="/w/index.php?title=Isopata&action=edit">isopata</A> that means the construction has a <A title=Rectangle href="/wiki/Rectangle">rectangle</A> plan, covered by <A title=Vault href="/wiki/Vault">vaults</A> made with <A title=Corbel href="/wiki/Corbel">corbel</A> technique. Known as <A class=new title="Tomb of Tantalus" href="/w/index.php?title=Tomb_of_Tantalus&action=edit">Tomb of Tantalus</A> this monumental work is thought to be the tomb of <A title=Basileus href="/wiki/Basileus">Basileus</A> or <A title=Tyrant href="/wiki/Tyrant">Tyrant</A> who ruled ancient Smyrna in <A title="580 BC" href="/wiki/580_BC">580</A>-<A title="520 BC" href="/wiki/520_BC">520 BC</A></P>
<P>The richness of the city impressed the <A title=Lydia href="/wiki/Lydia">Lydians</A> and caused them to battle with Smyrna. Lydian army captured the city in <A title="610 BC" href="/wiki/610_BC">610</A>-<A title="600 BC" href="/wiki/600_BC">600 BC</A> and they fired and destroyed Smyrna. However, the people managed to re-build their city again.</P>
<P>The fall of ancient Smyrna is the result of the <A title="Persian Empire" href="/wiki/Persian_Empire">Persian</A> invasion. The Persian emperor required the towns of <A title="Aegean Sea" href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea">Aegean</A> coast to prop himself against Lydians while their army was going forward in Anatolia. In order to punish the towns, which refuse to support him, the Persian emperor attacked Smyrna with the other towns after conquering <A title=Sardis href="/wiki/Sardis">Sardis</A>, the capital of Lydia. As a result of the attacks of Persian army, Smyrna was destroyed in 545 BC. After this great destruction, no city type settlement was observed in Bayraklı.</P>
<P><A title="Alexander the Great" href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great">Alexander the Great</A> defeated <A title=Darius href="/wiki/Darius">Darius</A> in <A title=Issus href="/wiki/Issus">Issus</A> in <A title="333 BC" href="/wiki/333_BC">333 BC</A> and captured the whole East. The cities witnessed a great increase in population. During this period, <A title=Alexandria href="/wiki/Alexandria">Alexandria</A>, <A title=Rhodes href="/wiki/Rhodes">Rhodes</A>, <A title=Pergamon href="/wiki/Pergamon">Pergamon</A>, and <A title=Ephesus href="/wiki/Ephesus">Ephesus</A> reached a population over 100,000. A few thousand people could live in the <A title="City wall" href="/wiki/City_wall">city walls</A> of ancient Smyrna founded on a small hill. Therefore, a new larger city was established on the skirts of <A class=new title=Kadifekale href="/w/index.php?title=Kadifekale&action=edit">Kadifekale</A> in <A title="300 BC" href="/wiki/300_BC">300 BC</A></P>
<P>Becoming a <A title="Ancient Rome" href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome">Roman</A> territory in <A title="133 BC" href="/wiki/133_BC">133 BC</A>, Smyrna started to live a golden period for the second time. Due to the importance that the city achieved, the <A title="Roman emperor" href="/wiki/Roman_emperor">Roman emperors</A> who came to Anatolia also visited Smyrna. Emperor <A title=Hadrian href="/wiki/Hadrian">Hadrian</A> also visited Smyrna in his journey in A.D. <A title=121 href="/wiki/121">121</A> to <A title=125 href="/wiki/125">125</A>.</P>
<P>The most important event that Smyrna witnessed in A.D. <A title=178 href="/wiki/178">178</A> was the devastating <A title=Earthquake href="/wiki/Earthquake">earthquake</A>. Considered to be one of the severest disasters happened in the city, the earthquake razed the town to the ground. The destruction was so big that the support of the Empire for re-building was inevitable. Emperor <A title="Marcus Aurelius" href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</A> had such a great contribution in the rebuilding activities that the city was even founded again.</P>
<P>Various works of art are thought to be made in the city during the period of <A title="Roman Empire" href="/wiki/Roman_Empire">Roman Empire</A>. The streets were completely covered with stones and these stones became dominant in the general view of the city. Among the constructions that were built in Smyrna during the Roman era, few traces remained from the stadium at west and from the theatre in the northwest skirt of <A class=new title="Mount Pagos" href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Pagos&action=edit">Mount Pagos</A>. On the other hand, the <A title=Agora href="/wiki/Agora">Agora</A> of the state is well preserved.</P>
<P>After the <A title="Roman Empire" href="/wiki/Roman_Empire">Roman Empire</A> had been separated, Smyrna became a territory of the <A title="East Roman Empire" href="/wiki/East_Roman_Empire">East Roman Empire</A>. Smyrna had become a religious center since the early times of <A title="Byzantine Empire" href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire">Byzantines</A>. However, the city did not display much progress. Although <A title="Attila the Hun" href="/wiki/Attila_the_Hun">Attila the Hun</A> took the control of the city, this sovereignty could not last long and the city was taken back by the Byzantines.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=İzmir href="/w/index.php?title=%C4%B0zmir&action=edit&section=5">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Smyrna_becomes_.C4.B0zmir name=Smyrna_becomes_.C4.B0zmir></A></P>
<H2>Smyrna becomes İzmir</H2>
<TABLE class="messagebox standard-talk">
<TBODY>
<TR>
<TD style="PADDING-RIGHT: 4px; PADDING-LEFT: 4px"><A class=image title="" href="/wiki/Image:Wiki_letter_w.png"><IMG height=40 alt="" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6a/Wiki_letter_w.png/40px-Wiki_letter_w.png" width=40 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Wiki_letter_w.png></A></TD>
<TD><B>It is requested that this article (or section of this article) be expanded.</B>
<P><SMALL>Please remove this notice after the article has been expanded. Details are on this talk page or at <A title="Wikipedia:Requests for expansion" href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Requests_for_expansion">Wikipedia:Requests for expansion</A>.</SMALL></P></TD></TR></TBODY></TABLE>
<P><A title="Turkic peoples" href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples">Turks</A> first captured Smyrna under the command of <A class=new title="Kutalmışoğlu Süleyman Şah" href="/w/index.php?title=Kutalm%C4%B1%C5%9Fo%C4%9Flu_S%C3%BCleyman_%C5%9Eah&action=edit">Kutalmışoğlu Süleyman Şah</A> in 1076. Çakabey conquered <A class=new title=Klazomenai href="/w/index.php?title=Klazomenai&action=edit">Klazomenai</A>, <A title=Foça href="/wiki/Fo%C3%A7a">Foça</A>, <A title=Chios href="/wiki/Chios">Chios</A>, <A title=Samos href="/wiki/Samos">Samos</A> and <A class=new title=İstankoy href="/w/index.php?title=%C4%B0stankoy&action=edit">İstankoy</A> Islands. After the death of Çakabey, the town and its vicinity was conquered by the Byzantines in 1098. Smyrna was captured by the <A title="Knights of Rhodes" href="/wiki/Knights_of_Rhodes">Knights of Rhodes</A> when <A title=Constantinople href="/wiki/Constantinople">Constantinople</A> was conquered by <A title=Crusaders href="/wiki/Crusaders">Crusaders</A>.</P>
<P>Smyrna became a Turkish land when the Turkish sailor <A class=new title=Umur href="/w/index.php?title=Umur&action=edit">Umur</A> Bey took the city back from Catholic Knights in 1320. During the period of principalities, some part of the city and its surroundings was taken under the sovereignty of both <A class=new title=Aydınogulları href="/w/index.php?title=Ayd%C4%B1nogullar%C4%B1&action=edit">Aydınogulları</A> and <A class=new title=Saruhanogulları href="/w/index.php?title=Saruhanogullar%C4%B1&action=edit">Saruhanogulları</A> <A title=Principality href="/wiki/Principality">Principalities</A>. From the time of Turkish settlement, the more modern name <B>İzmir</B> started to take hold.</P>
<DIV class="thumb tleft">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="Konak Square of Izmir" href="/wiki/Image:Konak_Izmir.jpg"><IMG height=200 alt="Konak Square of Izmir" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/d2/Konak_Izmir.jpg/300px-Konak_Izmir.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Konak_Izmir.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Konak_Izmir.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>Konak Square of Izmir</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<P><A title="Murat II" href="/wiki/Murat_II">Murat II</A> occupied İzmir in 1422 and it became an <A title="Ottoman Empire" href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire">Ottoman</A> territory. After some privileges were given to foreigners in 1620, İzmir became one of the most important trade centers of Ottomans. Consulates of foreign countries increased because of the capitulations given to Europe by the <A title=Ottomans href="/wiki/Ottomans">Ottomans</A>. It is known that these consulates dealt with trade. Each consulate had its own quay and their ships were anchoring there. The fire İzmir witnessed after the devastating earthquake happened in 1688, demolished the whole city. However, after the fire and the earthquake the city was rapidly reconstructed. In 18th and 19th centuries, İzmir became popular among the <A title=France href="/wiki/France">French</A>, <A title=England href="/wiki/England">English</A>, <A title=Netherlands href="/wiki/Netherlands">Dutch</A> and <A title=Italy href="/wiki/Italy">Italian</A> merchants. Being a multinational trade center in Ottoman Empire, İzmir was occupied by <A title="Greek Army" href="/wiki/Greek_Army">Greek Army</A> on <A title="May 15" href="/wiki/May_15">15 May</A> <A title=1919 href="/wiki/1919">1919</A>. The occupation came to an end on <A title="September 9" href="/wiki/September_9">September 9</A>, <A title=1922 href="/wiki/1922">1922</A>. However, on <A title="September 13" href="/wiki/September_13">September 13</A>, İzmir could not escape from experiencing probably the greatest disaster of its history. The fire, which started in Basmane Quarter, destroyed more than 20,000 buildings in an area of 2,600,000 m². This fire unfortunately destroyed around three quarter of the city. However, the city was gradually rebuilt after the proclamation of the <A title="Turkish Republic" href="/wiki/Turkish_Republic">Turkish Republic</A> in 1923.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=İzmir href="/w/index.php?title=%C4%B0zmir&action=edit&section=6">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Modern_.C4.B0zmir name=Modern_.C4.B0zmir></A></P>
<H2>Modern İzmir</H2>
<DIV class="thumb tright">
<DIV style="WIDTH: 302px"><A class=internal title="A Street view from Modern Izmir" href="/wiki/Image:Izmir_Street_2.jpg"><IMG height=225 alt="A Street view from Modern Izmir" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/2a/Izmir_Street_2.jpg/300px-Izmir_Street_2.jpg" width=300 longDesc=/wiki/Image:Izmir_Street_2.jpg></A>
<DIV class=thumbcaption>
<DIV class=magnify style="FLOAT: right"><A class=internal title=Enlarge href="/wiki/Image:Izmir_Street_2.jpg"><IMG height=11 alt=Enlarge src="/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width=15></A></DIV>A Street view from Modern Izmir</DIV></DIV></DIV>
<P>Today, İzmir is Turkey's third largest city and is nicknamed "Occidental İzmir" or "The <A title=Pearl href="/wiki/Pearl">pearl</A> of the <A title="Aegean Sea" href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea">Aegean</A>". It is widely regarded as the most <A title=Liberalism href="/wiki/Liberalism">liberal</A> Turkish city in terms of values, ideology, lifestyle, and gender roles. It is a stronghold of the political party <A title="Republican People's Party (Turkey)" href="/wiki/Republican_People%27s_Party_%28Turkey%29">CHP</A>.</P>
<P>İzmir is also home-town of some famous singers like <A title="Sezen Aksu" href="/wiki/Sezen_Aksu">Sezen Aksu</A>.</P>
<P>The city hosts an international arts festival during June/July, and an international fair during August/September every year.</P>
<P>Modern İzmir also incorporates world-famous ancient cities like <A title=Ephesus href="/wiki/Ephesus">Ephesus</A>, <A title=Pergamon href="/wiki/Pergamon">Pergamon</A>, and <A title=Sardis href="/wiki/Sardis">Sardis</A>. Turkish Internet phenomenon <A title="Mahir Cagri" href="/wiki/Mahir_Cagri">Mahir Çağrı</A> is a resident.</P>
<P>There is one modern <A title=Subway href="/wiki/Subway">subway</A> line running Southwest to Northeast.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=İzmir href="/w/index.php?title=%C4%B0zmir&action=edit&section=7">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Climate name=Climate></A></P>
<H2>Climate</H2>
<P>People coming to İzmir can expect long, hot summers and mild, rainy winters. The total precipitation for İzmir averages 706 mm (27.8 inches) per year; however, 77 % of that falls during <A title=November href="/wiki/November">November</A> through <A title=March href="/wiki/March">March</A>. The average maximum temperatures during the winter months vary between 12 and 14°C. Although it's rare, snow has been recorded in İzmir in <A title=January href="/wiki/January">January</A> and <A title=February href="/wiki/February">February</A>. The summer months—<A title=June href="/wiki/June">June</A> through <A title=September href="/wiki/September">September</A>—bring average daytime temperatures of 28°C or higher.</P>
<P>Many people install fans or air conditioners to cool their apartments. Rain is extremely rare in the summer and residents must sometimes undergo water rationing before the rains return in the fall.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=İzmir href="/w/index.php?title=%C4%B0zmir&action=edit&section=8">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A name=.C4.B0zmir_International_Fair></A></P>
<H2>İzmir International Fair</H2>
<P>The <A class=new title="Izmir International Fair" href="/w/index.php?title=Izmir_International_Fair&action=edit">İzmir International Fair</A> (İIF), the only member of the Union of International Fairs in <A title=Turkey href="/wiki/Turkey">Turkey</A>, was held on an area of 421,000m<SUP>2</SUP>. In accordance with the rapid and dramatic developments in Turkish economy, İIF has been organising various national and international specialized fairs for years. İIF also made great contributions to İzmir’s social and cultural life with its fair ground, open-air theatre, Painting and Sculpture Museum, art centers, amusement park, zoo and parachute tower.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=İzmir href="/w/index.php?title=%C4%B0zmir&action=edit&section=9">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Birds_Paradise name=Birds_Paradise></A></P>
<H2>Birds Paradise</H2>
<P>İzmir Bird's Paradise located 15 km west of <A title=Karşıyaka href="/wiki/Kar%C5%9F%C4%B1yaka">Karşıyaka</A>, has 205 species of birds. There are 63 species of domestic birds, 54 species of summer migratory birds, 43 species of winter migratory birds, 30 spices of transit birds. 56 spices of birds have been breeding in the Park. İzmir Bird's Paradise which covers 80 square kilometres was registered as "The protected area for water birds and for their breeding" by Ministry of Forestry in 1982.</P>
<DIV class=editsection style="FLOAT: right; MARGIN-LEFT: 5px">[<A title=İzmir href="/w/index.php?title=%C4%B0zmir&action=edit&section=10">edit</A>]</DIV>
<P><A id=Cuisine_of_.C4.B0zmir name=Cuisine_of_.C4.B0zmir></A></P>
<H2>Cuisine of İzmir</H2>
<P>İzmir’s cuisine has largely been affected by its multicultural history, hence the large variety of food originating from the <A title="Aegean Sea" href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea">Aegean</A>, <A title=Mediterranean href="/wiki/Mediterranean">Mediterranean</A> and <A title=Anatolian href="/wiki/Anatolian">Anatolian</A> regions. Another factor is the large area of land surrounding the region which grows a rich selection of vegetables. Some of the common dishes found here are tarhana soup (made from dried yoghurt and tomatoes), İzmir meatballs, <A class=new title=Keskek href="/w/index.php?title=Keskek&action=edit">keskek</A> (boiled wheat with meat) <A class=new title=Zerde href="/w/index.php?title=Zerde&action=edit">zerde</A> (sweetened rice with saffr